X.  I  B  R  ^  I^  Y  (5f '5 

Of    THE 

Theological    Seminary, 

PRINCETON,     N.    J. 

'O^sr  f^i  vision.. //jOL_yQ(3 

Shelf  Sec'Lic n . .* .    .t  c3,5 

j^OOk  No...; 


THE 

ENGLISH  AND  FOREIGN 

PHILOSOPHICAL  LIBRARY. 


VOLUME  VIII. 


RELIGION   IN  CHINA; 


CONTAINING 


A  BRIEF  ACCOUNT  OF  THE  THREE  RELIGIONS 
OF  THE  CHINESE: 


WITH 


OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  PROSPECTS  OF  CHRISTIAN 
CONVERSION  AMONGST  THAT  PEOPLE. 


BY 

JOSEPH "EDKINS,  D.D. 

AUTHOR  OF  "  A  GRAMMAR  OF  THE  SHANGHAI  DIALECT,"  "  OF  THE  CHINESE  COLLOQlIAt, 

LANGUAGE,  COMMONLY  CALLED  MANDARIN,"    "  CHINa'm  PLACE  IN 

PHILOLOGY,"  "THE  CHINESE  CHARACTERS,"  ETC. 


SitttixCfi  <!Etjition. 


BOSTON: 
JAMES    E.    OSGOOD    AND    COMPANY, 

{Late  Ticknor  <Sc  Fields,  and  Fields,  Osgood,  &  Co.) 
1878. 


PREFACE  TO  SECOND  EDITION. 


The  history  of  the  Chinese  religions  is  replete  with  in- 
struction. They  have  developed  themselves  from  bases 
which  are  entirely  Asiatic.  Partly  of  native  origin,  and 
partly  Indian,  they  have  grown  up  quite  independently  of 
Judaism  and  of  Christianity. 

The  nomenclature  and  fundamental  ideas  of  Confucian- 
ism and  of  early  Taouism  are  purely  native,  and  bear  tes- 
timony to  the  fact  of  clear  moral  distinctions,  a  strong 
appetite  for  legend,  and  a  deep  love  of  traditional  religion. 
The  Buddhism  of  India  transplanted  into  a  colder  climate 
and  adapted  to  the  habits  of  a  practical  and  unimaginative 
people,  yet  bears  traces  through  all  its  immense  ramifica- 
tions of  Aryan  origin. 

To  show  how  the  tree  of  religion  in  China  has  gradually 
attained  its  present  size  and  shape  is  the  object  of  this 
little  book.  Its  root  is  native,  and  its  principal  branch 
has  always  continued  so.  But  a  mighty  branch  of  foreign 
origin  has  been  grafted  in  the  old  stock.  The  metaphys- 
ical religion  of  Shakyamuni  was  added  to  the  moral 
doctrines  of  Confucius.     Another  process  may  then  be 


vl  PREFACE. 

witnessed.  A  native  twig  was  grafted  in  the  Indian 
branch.  Modern  Taouism  has  grown  up  on  the  model 
supplied  by  Buddhism.  That  it  is  possible  to  observe  the 
modus  operandi  of  this  repeated  grafting,  and  to  estimate 
the  amount  of  gain  and  loss  to  the  people  of  China,  result- 
ing from  the  varied  religious  teaching  which  they  have  thus 
received,  is  a  circumstance  of  the  greatest  interest  to  the 
investigator  of  the  world's  religions.  This  little  book  con- 
tains a  brief  sketch  of  a  very  wide  subject.  Only  the  main 
features  could  be  embraced.  It  is  hoped,  however,  that  no 
very  important  points  have  been  entirely  omitted. 

If  Professor  Max  Miiller  succeeds  in  making  the  study 
of  religions  as  popular  as  he  has  done  that  of  Comparative 
Philology,  the  field  for  research  presented  by  China  may 
soon  be  worked  by  many  new  investigators.  Meantime 
this  book  may  continue  to  serve  as  a  brief  manual  to  the 
subject  it  treats  for  some  years  to  come. 

Those  interested  in  the  progress  of  the  Christian  mis- 
sionary enterprise  have  here  the  means  of  judging  what 
sort  of  work  has  to  be  done  in  China. 

Ancestral  worship  is  seen  taking  very  much  the  place 
of  a  religion,  and  duty  to  parents  needs,  therefore,  to  be 
placed  on  the  Christian  footing.  Eeverence  to  heaven  and 
earth  is  commonly  inculcated,  and  instead  of  it  has  to  be 
substituted  the  worship  of  the  Supreme,  Eternal  God  by 
every  human  being.  The  duty  of  man  to  man  is  very  fully 
laid  down.  It  is  requisite  for  the  Christian  teacher  to 
class  all  human  duties  in  subordination  to  the  love  of  God. 
The  future  life  as  presented  to  the  eye  of  the  popular  reli- 


PREFACE.  vii 

gious  consciousness  does  not  command  intelligent  faith, 
because  Buddhism  has  no  confidence  in  its  own  teaching 
on  this  point.  The  Chinese  will  find  in  the  Christian  doc- 
trine of  the  future  life  that  which  will  help  them  to  change 
vagueness  and  uncertainty  for  assured  hope.  So  also  with 
redemption  as  taught  by  Buddhists,  There  is  no  sohdity 
in  it.  It  reduces  itself  to  abstractions  and  fine  distinc- 
tions in  words.  Its  indefiniteness  is  in  strong  contrast  to 
the  Christian  redemption,  which  finding  man  beset  with 
evil,  holds  out  to  him  the  strong  hand  of  a  divine  deli- 
verer, and  makes  him  both  virtuous  and  happy. 

Thirty-five  years  have  gone  by  since  China  was  opened. 
Missionary  progress  was  at  first  very  slow.  In  some 
cities  many  summers  and  winters  passed  before  the  occur- 
rence of  a  single  baptism.  After  fifteen  years  a  thousand 
converts  rewarded  the  labours  of  the  missionaries.  An- 
other fifteen  years  saw  this  number  increased  to  ten 
thousand.  The  growth  of  the  Christian  element  is  now 
seen  steadily  advancing. 

The  number  of  points  at  which  the  work  of  the  Pro- 
testant missions  is  carried  forward  is  rapidly  increasing, 
and  the  same  is  true  of  those  of  the  Eomish  Church, 
which  count  their  adherents  by  hundreds  of  thousands. 

Among  the  causes  of  the  more  frequent  baptisms  that 
we  hear  of  in  most  of  the  districts  where  missionaries  are 
labouring  at  the  present  time,  are  the  greater  peace  of  the 
country  during  the  last  few  years,  and  the  fact  that  the 
local  authorities  and  persons  of  influence  understand 
better  than  before  that  the  acceptance  of  Christianity  is 


viii  PREFACE. 

not  a  crime  against  tlie  law.  Wrongs  inflicted  on  Chris- 
tians have  in  several  instances  been  rectified,  and  there 
is  not  so  much  fear  felt  as  there  was  that  baptism  must 
involve  very  much  suffering. 

One  of  the  concessions  secured  by  Sir  Thomas  Wade  in 
the  negotiations  of  1 876,  with  Le-hung-chang,  Governor- 
General  of  Chile,  was  the  posting  in  all  public  places 
through  the  country  of  an  imperial  proclamation  respect- 
ing the  murdering  of  Mr.  Margary.  This  is  found  to  have 
a  beneficial  effect  on  the  people,  as  making  it  their  duty 
to  look  on  foreigners  as  friends.  Several  instances  have 
lately  occurred  of  persons  asking  for  baptism  being  led  to 
think  of  it  through  this  proclamation. 

We  can  judge  best  of  the  prospect  of  the  spread  of 
Christianity  in  China  by  casting  an  eye  on  those  districts 
where  Christian  communities  have  been  gathered.  They 
are  extending  themselves  in  many  places  with  no  small 
rapidity.  In  some  parts  the  village  population  has  dur- 
ing recent  years  shown  a  tendency  to  adopt  new  religious 
ideas,  combined  with  the  prohibition  of  opium  and 
tobacco  smoking,  worship  without  images,  and  obedience 
in  regard  of  doctrine  to  some  spiritual  guide.  In  the 
neighbourhood  of  Peking  there  are  several  such  associa- 
tions, all  of  modern  origin.  In  some  the  abandonment  of 
opium-smoking  is  rigidly  enforced.  Many  persons  foUow 
the  practice  of  these  sects  for  a  few  months  or  years,  and 
then,  on  being  urged  by  the  Christians  to  join  them,  they 
yield  without  much  difficulty,  saying  that  they  did  not  in 


PREFACE.  ix 

the  new  association  they  had  entered  realise  the  good 
they  had  expected. 

There  is  a  better  prospect  of  progress  in  the  village 
population  than  in  the  cities,  because  the  influence  of  the 
literary  class  is  little  felt  in  country  places.  The  attitude 
of  the  cultured  class  for  the  present  is  not  favourable 
towards  Christianity,  and  their  policy  is  to  say  nothing 
about  it.  Most  of  the  educated  will  read  books  on  Western 
science,  geograj)hy,  and  politics  with  much  more  willing- 
ness than  on  our  religion.  Illustrations  on  this  subject 
will  be  found  in  the  following  chapters. 

The  first  edition  of  this  work  was  published  in  1859, 
and  has  been  long  out  of  print.  Four  chapters  are  now 
added.  One  of  these  chapters  contains  a  description  of 
imperial  worship.  The  other  three  are  an  account  of  a 
journey  to  Woo-tai-shan,  a  celebrated  seat  of  Buddhist 
worship,  and  very  popular  place  of  pilgrimage.  The  book 
has  been  revised  throutrhout. 


"O' 


Peking,  October  1877. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER   I. 

INTRODUCTORY. 

PAQK 

Interest  of  tlae  subject— Confucius  :  what  he  did  and  aimed 
at — Laou-tsoo,  the  founder  of  Taouism — Buddhism  :  dis- 
tinguished from  Brahmanism  and  Lamaism — Early  intro- 
duction of  Christianity  into  China — Prospects  of  Chris- 
tian missions  in  China — Opium i 

CHAPTER  II. 

IMPERIAL   WORSHIP. 

Prayer  by  Shun-che  at  the  altar  of  Heaven  and  Earth  at  the 
establishment  of  the  Manchoo  dynasty — Three  annual 
sacrifices  at  the  altar  of. Heaven — Temple  and  altar  of 
Heaven  described — Burnt  sacrifice  offerings  and  libations 
— Burning  of  the  prayer — Sacrifice  to  Earth — Burning  of 
offerings — Notions  on  sacrifices — Worship  of  ancestors — 
Temple  of  ancestors — Ofi'erings — Sacrifices  to  the  gods  of 
grain  and  laud  ......••         l8 

CHAPTER  III. 

TEMPLES. 

Confucian  temple — Sacrifices  to  Confucius — Idea  of  these 
temples  funereal — Temples  to  virtuous  women — Temple 
to  agricultural  divinities — Buddhist  monasteries  :  their 
idea :  placed  amidst  fine  scenery — Teen-tae — Monasticism 
— Taouist  temples  :  idea  of  their  construction — Temples 
of  state  gods — Imperial  lectures 39 


xii  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

CONFLICT   OF   RELIGIOUS   PARTIES   IN    ChINA. 


PAGE 


Controversy  between  the  followers  of  Confucius  and  those  of 
Buddha  and  Taou — Government  protests  against  idolatry 
— Feeling  of  the  Confucianists  respecting  idolatry — Con- 
troversies among  the  Confucianists  themselves  .         .         50 

CHAPTER  V. 

HOW   THREE  NATIONAL   RELIGIONS   COEXIST   IN   CHINA. 

China  a  field  for  observing  the  conflict  of  moral  and  religious 
ideas — The  Chinese  readily  conform  to  three  religions, 
which  are  all  national,  although  based  on  different  prin- 
ciples. Tlie  three  religions  are  distinguished — Confucian- 
ism as  moral — Taouism  as  materialistic — Buddliism  as 
metaphysicalT-Scene  in  a  Taouist  temple — All  three  reli- 
gions are  supported  by  authority 55 

CHAPTER  VI. 

INFLUENCE   OF   BUDDHISM   ON   CHINESE   LITERATURE,  PHILOSOPHY, 

AND   SOCIAL   LIFE. 

Praise  of  Buddhism  by  the  poets — Monastery  of  Teen-tso 
described  by  Taou-Iian — Influence  on  the  philosophy  of 
Choo-foo-tsze — Doctrine  of  Tae-keih — Mr.  Cooke  and 
Commissioner  Yeh — Denial  of  Divine  personality  the 
efi"ect  of  Buddhism — The  Chinese  really  believe  in  a  per- 
sonal God — Name  for  God — Asserted  identity  of  Bud- 
dhism with  Confucianism — Chinese  latitudinarianism — 
Influence  on  the  worship  of  ancestors — A  funeral  proces- 
sion— Faith  in  a  future  state 67 

CHAPTER  VII. 

llNPLUENCE   OF   BUDDHISM   ON   CHINESE   LITERATURE   AND'sOCIAL 

LIFE   CONTINUED.! 

A  modern  Hangchow  author  commenting  on  European  astro- 
nomy, compares  the  European  astronomers  with  the  in- 
ventors of  the  Buddhist  cosmogony — A  Soochow  author 


CONTENTS.  xiii 

PAGE 

criticises  Matthew  Ricci  and  Copernicus  :  his  views  on  the 
future  state  :  denies  the  Buddhist  and  Taouist  doctrine — 
Suitableness  of  Christianity  to  his  mental  condition — The 
Buddhism  of  private  life  at  Soochow — Interior  of  a  man- 
darin's dwelling — Common  belief  in  a  former  life,  and  in 
incarnations — Buddhist  phrases  adopted  into  the  language 
— Terms  for  heaven  and  hell,  charity,  retribution,  &c.      .         79 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

CONFUCIAN   AND    BUDDHIST   NOTIONS  OF   GOD, 

Primitive  Chinese  conceptions  of  God  and  of  spirits — Worship 
of  heaven  and  earth — Their  ideas  on  Divine  attributes  and 
on  creation — Buddhist  notions  of  God — Fuh  and  Poosa 
take  the  place  of  God — Buddhism  is  atheistic  .         .         ,         91 

CHAPTER  IX. 

TAOUIST   NOTIONS   OF   GOD. 

Gods  of  the  sea  and  the  tides — Star-gods — Sublimated  essences 
of  matter  transformed  into  planets  and  into  divinities — 
connection  of  alchemy  and  astrology — Incarnations  of 
star-gods — Wen-chang,  Tow-moo,  Kwei-sing,  Pole-star, 
stated  to  be  identical  with  God — ]\Iaterialistic  theory  of 
creation — Taouist  genii,  Sien-jin — Buddhist  element  in 
Taouist  mythology — Buddhist  and  Taouist  trinity— In- 
tellectual divinities — Yuh-hwang-Shangte,  god  of  riches 
— San-kwan — Liturgical  works — State  gods     .         .        .       105 

CHAPTER  X. 

MORALITY  OF   THE   CHINESE. 

Fame  of  the  Chinese  moralists — What  is  the  Confucian  mo- 
rality 1 — Controversy  on  the  universal  obligation  to  love 
— View  of  Mih-tsze — Controversy  on  human  nature — 
Chinese  education  moral — Present  moral  condition  of 
China — Moral  influence  of  Buddhism — Klaproth  praises 
Buddhism — Preservation  of  animal  life — Denial  of  God 
and  of  Divine  law — Buddhist  almsfrivini? — Taouist  doc- 

o  o 

trine  of  moral  retribution  in  this  life       .         .         .         .       117 


xiv  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XL 

NOTIONS  ON   SIN    AND   REDEMPTION. 

PAGE 

An  old  man's  confession — Confucins  admitted  defect  in  every 
man — Buddhist  consciousness  of  sin — Bodily  calamities 
retribution  for  sin — Confucian  notion  of  honour — For- 
giveness on  repentance — Buddhist  notion  of  redemption 
through  monastic  discipline — Redemption  consummated 
in  the  Nirvana — The  ten  vices — Forgiveness  on  prayer 
and  fasting — The  mute  priest — Buddha  as  the  redeemer 
— Taouist  notions  of  sin 129 


CHAPTER  XII. 

NOTIONS  ON  IMMORTALITY  AND  FUTURE  JUDGMENT. 

I 

Silence  of  Confucius  on  immortality — Taouist  conceptions  of 
the  soul  as  material  tend  to  the  denial  of  immortality — 
Buddhism  advocates  strongly  the  immateriality  and  im- 
mortality of  the  soul — Chinese  word  for  soul,  Shin, 
means  invisible  substance — What  does  ancestral  worship 
show  1 — Three  phases  in  the  Buddhist  view  of  the  future 
state — Transmigration — The  six  states  of  the  metempsy- 
chosis— Yen-lo-wang,  the  Hindoo  Yama,  god  of  death — 
The  Nirvana :  corresponds  to  our  doctrine  of  immor- 
tality, and  yet  amounts  to  annihilation — The  paradise  of 
the  Western  heaven — The  Taouist  heaven  of  the  genii — 
Star  palaces — Terrestrial  paradises  ....       142 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

CHINESE   OPINIONS   ON   CHRISTIANITY. 

Objections  to  Christianity — Its  prohibition  of  ancestral  wor- 
ship— Its  facts  denied — Use  of  Syrian  and  Jewish  monu- 
ments in  defence  of  them — The  morality  of  the  Bible — 
Exclusiveness  of  Christianity  —  National  prejudice — 
Charge  of  borrowing  from  Buddhism      .         .         .         -153 


CONTENTS.  XV 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

ROMAN   CATHOLIC  MISSIONS. 

PAGE 

Numerous  converts — Their  ideas  of  Protestantism — Village 
communities — Schools — Seminaries  for  native  priests — 
Life  of  the  European  priests — Discussion  with  one  of 
them — They  give  little  attention  to  literature         .        .       i66 


CHAPTER  XV. 

MOHAMMEDANS,   JEWS,   AND   WOO-WEI   BUDDHISTS. 

Chinese  Mohammedans  numerous  in  the  north — Charged  by 
the  Chinese  with  borrowing  from  Buddhism — Criticisms 
on  Mohammed — Jews  at  Kai-fung-foo  near  to  extinction 
— Woo-wei  Buddhists  :  use  no  images  :  their  sincerity  .       178 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

THE   TAIPING   INSURRECTION. 

Began  in  a  religious  movement — Intermingling  of  fanaticism 
— Not  impostors — Their  opposition  to  idolatry— Their 
mixed  character — Unpopularity — Results  of  this  move- 
ment— An  interview  with  one  of  them — Hope  for  the 
Protestant  missions— Prospects  of  Christian  conversion         189 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

JOURNET   TO   WOO-TAI-SHAN   COMMENCED. 

Left  Peking  on  day  of  imperial  marriage — Bales  of  cotton — 
Paved  roads — Monumental  gateway — Chinese  inn — 
Loess  formation — Cho-chow — Deification  of  Kwan-te — 
Slow  spread  of  knowledge — Pau-ting-foo — Pilgrim  Lamas 
— A  fair — Tricks  of  mules — Plank  bridges — Manufacture 
of  earthenware  jars — Vaccination — Native  politeness — 
Exchange  of  money — Lung-tsiuen-kwan — Village  com- 
bination against  robbery 201 


xvi  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 

JOUKNEY   TO   WOO-TAI-SHAN   CONTINUED. 

PAOB 

Lung-tsiuen-kwan  passed  —  Monastery  of  Arshan-bolog — 
Another,  Tai-loo-sze — A  reader  of  the  Bible — Threshing 
oats — Overshot  mill — Woo-tai  on  a  cold  frosty  morning 
— Dara-ehe — Manjoosere  seated  on  a  lion — Worship  of 
Chi-chay,  an  ancient  Chinese  Buddhist — Readers  of 
Mongol — Monastery  of  the  Seven  Buddhas — Image  of 
Ochirwani — Poo-sa-ting — Present  from  the  chief  Lama — 
Old  relics  of  Buddha — Temple  of  Ubegun  Manjoosere — 
Legends — View  of  the  valley — Temple  of  Dara-ehe — 
Sacred  dance — Number  of  Lamas  at  Woo-tai — Soles  of 
Buddha's  feet — Mongol  -women  as  pilgrims — Rich  tem- 
ples— Daily  life  of  Lamas 223 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

JOURNEY   FROM   WOO-TAI-SHAN   TO   PEKING. 

Splendid  view  from  top  of  Pei-tai — Extent  of  the  Woo-tai 
mountains — Ten  thousand  feet  high — Kanghe's  panegyric 
— Thoughts  of  pilgrims — Heng-shan,  the  sacred  moun- 
tain of  the  Confucianists — Asked  for  our  passports — 
Selling  Christian  books — Deep  clefts  in  the  loess  forma- 
tion— The  Great  Wall  at  Ping-hing-kwan  —  Numerous 
beasts  of  burden — State  of  the  people — Wages — Temple  1^ 
to  Laou-kiun  in  a  pass — Temple  to  Kwan-te — A  Bud- 
dhist advertisement — Great  Wall  towers  of  a.d.  1576 — 
Tsze-king-kwan — A  beautiful  valley — The  fruits  of  good 
and  bad  actions  are  not  hidden — A  Buddhist  doctrine 
capable  of  being  applied  to  Christian  teaching        .         .       242 


RELIGION    IN    CHINA. 


CHAPTER    I. 

INTRODUCTORY. 

'No  riclier  field  for  examination  is  presented  to  inquiring 
men  at  tlie  present  time  than  China.  The  barriers  of  that 
exclusiveness  that  have  so  long  hindered  the  investiga- 
tions of  travellers,  and  checked  the  progress  of  Christian 
missions  and  of  lawful  commerce,  are  now  broken  down. 
The  Chinese  national  spirit  deliberately  placed  itself  in 
direct  hostility  to  the  introduction  of  foreign  customs  and 
ideas.  The  great  wall  that  forms  the  northern  boundary 
of  the  Empire  is  the  emphatic  emblem  of  this  national 
exclusiveness.  It  is  so  as  much  in  its  failure  to  attain  its 
object  as  in  the  idea  of  its  original  construction.  Several 
times  has  a  Tartar  race  broken  through  that  ineffectual 
barrier,  and  conquered  the  country  it  was  intended  to 
defend.  The  law  against  the  entrance  of  foreigners  and 
freedom  of  trade  has  proved  equally  useless ;  and  China 
is  now,  through  its  whole  extent,  with  its  vast  outlying 
dependencies,  open  to  Europeans. 

The  richness  of  the  Chinese  field  for  inquiry  is  increased 

by  the  centuries  of  isolation  in  which  the  sons  of  Han  have 

preferred  to  live.     It  is  this  circumstance  that  renders  its 

contribntions  to  the  history  of  pliilosophy,  literature,  politics, 

10  A 


2  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

and  religion  likely  to  prove  full  of  freshness  and  instruc- 
tion. If  the  opening  of  Japan  is  highly  promising  to 
Western  enterprise  because  of  the  intelligence  and  civilisa- 
tion of  its  inhabitants,  that  of  China  ought  to  be  considered 
much  more  so,  because  the  civilisation  of  Japan  is  based 
upon  that  of  China.  There  is  something  that  fascinates 
the  foreign  eye  in  the  more  cleanly  habitations  of  the 
Japanese,  and  their  more  efiicient  police.  They  please  by 
the  quickness  with  which  they  learn  to  speak  foreign 
languages,  and  the  desire  they  have  to  acquire  Western 
knowledge.  But  it  should  always  be  remembered  that  they 
can  boast  of  no  remarkable  inventions  and  discoveries,  such 
as  printmg,  papermaking,  the  properties  of  the  loadstone, 
and  the  composition  of  gunpowder.  They  study  the  books 
and  reverence  the  sages  and  great  authors  of  China  as  we 
do  those  of  Greece  and  Eome.  They  derived  their  pohtics, 
religion,  and  educational  system  from  the  countrymen  of 
Confucius,  as  they  are  now  obtaining  from  us  a  knowledge 
of  mathematics  and  mechanics.  They  must  not  be  com- 
pared, then,  with  the  Chinese  for  those  things  that  con- 
stitute a  great  nation.  In  Eastern  Asia  it  is  only  the  race 
that  spoke  the  Sanscrit  language  that  can  compete  with 
China  in  the  extent  and  depth  of  its  influence. 

If  the  Chinese  are  not  so  profound  in  philosophy  or  so 
acute  in  philology  as  the  ancient  Hindoos,  and  have  never 
had  a  Kapila  or  a  Panini  among  them,  they  have  far 
excelled  that  people  in  the  practical  part  of  a  nation's 
development.  In  history  and  politics,  in  social  economics, 
in  practical  applications  of  science,  and  in  useful  inven- 
tions, they  are  incontrovertibly  superior.  The  Hindoos 
have  not  yet  learned  to  write  history  or  to  record  facts ; 
they  have  never  been  able  to  construct  a  political  system 
for  their  country  capable  of  becoming  universal  and  perma- 
nent ;  and  after  long  neglecting  to  imitate  from  the  Chinese 
the  art  of  printing,  they  are  only  now  beginning  to  adopt 
it  from  Europeans.  In  the  practical  qualities  that  consti- 
tute the  greatness  of  a  nation  the  Chinese  are  superior. 


CHINA  MISUNDERSTOOD.  3 

There  is  everytliiiig,  then,  to  ensure  to  inquiries  into  the 
literature  and  social  condition  of  China  interesting  results. 
But  it  is  necessary  to  limit  the  field  of  inquiry.  There 
have  been  many  books  written  on  that  country,  with  a 
chapter  on  everything.  It  is  this  circumstance  that  renders 
them  unsatisfactory  to  those  who  seek  information  on  some 
particular  subject.  For  example,  on  the  character  of  their 
religions  there  still  remains  much  to  be  said.  Those  who 
have  described  China  have  spoken  with  some  fulness  of 
detail  on  the  Confucian  system,  but  they  have  given  too 
little  attention  to  the  religions  of  Buddha  and  Taou.  There 
is  room,  then,  for  a  work  like  the  present,  which  sketches 
the  religious  condition  of  the  people  at  the  present  time 
from  actual  observation.  Space  is  wanting  in  a  volume 
like  this  to  enter  adequately  into  the  subject.  Jt  will, 
perhaps,  prove  the  forerunner  of  one  larger  in  dimensions, 
that  may  do  a  little  more  justice  to  many  of  the  questions 
that  here  occur  to  be  considered,  and  also  attempt  the 
narrative  of  the  birth,  progress,  and  existing  state  of  the 
religions  of  China. 

We  Europeans  do  not  yet  know  China.  It  assumes  to 
our  imaginations  a  certain  quaint  and  ludicrous  aspect, 
which  interferes  with  a  correct  opinion  of  its  condition. 
The  first  who  visited  it  were  travellers  of  the  Middle  A^es, 
who,  even  if  they  had  not  found  in  it  a  country  resembling 
in  its  civilisation  Europe  as  it  then  was,  would  have  given 
to  their  descriptions  of  it  a  mediaeval  colouring,  because 
they  were  themselves  mediaeval  men.  The  picturesque 
pages  of  Sir  John  Mandeville,  and  the  more  detailed 
accounts  of  Marco  Polo,  told  such  wonderful  things  of 
China,  that  their  readers  did  not  feel  sure  whetlier  they 
were  dealing  in  fact  or  fiction.  Ever  since  that  time  the 
AVestern  world  has  agreed  to  look  at  China  through  a 
coloured  glass,  as,  indeed,  the  inhabitants  of  that  country 
look  at  us.  We  see  in  them  much  that  is  singular  and  pro- 
vocative of  laughter,  and  they  imagine  that  we  exhibit  char- 
acteristics just  as  adapted  to  excite  the  sense  of  risibility. 


4  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

In  acquiring  a  true  view  of  a  nation,  there  is  nothing 
more  helpful  than  an  acquaintance  with  its  reKgious  opin- 
ions. They  are  too  intimately  connected  with  the  spiritual 
and  intellectual  life  of  a  nation  not  to  be  excellent  expon- 
ents of  its  true  character,  and  too  real  not  to  demand  very 
grave  consideration.  The  religions  of  India  and  China  are 
invested  with  an  interest  high  in  proportion  to  the  advance- 
ment in  science  and  the  arts  of  those  who  believe  them. 
God  has  left  these  nations  to  the  unassisted  light  of  nature 
and  reason  for  an  unusually  long  period.  They  have  had 
ample  opportunities  for  doing  what  man  by  wisdom  can 
do,  to  find  out  God  as  He  is  in  Himself  and  in  His  relations 
to  us.  The  history  of  all  heathen  religions  is  the  history 
of  the  ineffectual  efforts  made  by  mankind  to  seek  after 
God,  to  know  the  nature  and  certainty  of  our  immortaKty, 
and  to  devise  means  of  salvation.  There  will  always  be, 
as  there  always  has  been,  the  intermixture  of  priestcraft 
and  kingcraft  with  these  religions ;  but  their  prime  element 
is  found  in  the  natural  longings  and  hopes  of  a  religious 
kind  that  men  have.  It  is  these  that  give  to  priests  and 
statesmen  the  opportunity  to  use  popular  superstitions  for 
their  own  advantage  as  engines  of  power.  All  this  comes 
very  clearly  to  view  in  the  religions  of  China. 

Two  results  will  be  observed  to  follow  from  a  careful 
study  of  the  religion  of  the  Chinese.  The  real  life  of  the 
nation  will  be  better  understood,  and  questions  connected 
with  natural  theology  will  receive  some  fresh  illustrations. 
It  will  be  shown,  by  new  examples,  how  men,  who  have 
not  the  light  of  Christianity,  seek  for  something  better 
than  they  possess,  and  how  they  try  to  satisfy  themselves 
with  a  substitute,  extremely  unsatisfactory  though  it  may 
be,  for  those  truths  which  revelation  teaches. 

The  most  noteworthy  name  in  all  Chinese  history  is  that 
of  Confucius.  He  was  one  of  those  who,  unaided,  except 
by  the  light  of  calm  reflection,  read  more  clearly  than 
most  the  lessons  conveyed  in  the  unwritten  book  of  God's 
law.     A  true  sage  was  Confucius,  one  who  reasoned  soberly 


CONFUCIUS.  c 

and  practically  on  human  duty ;  a  man  to  attract  towards 
himself  high  veneration  on  account  of  his  personal  character 
and  the  subjects  and  manner  of  his  teaching.  He  lived  in 
the  sixth  century  before  Christ,  a  hundred  years  later  than 
Buddha,  and  a  hundred  years  earlier  than  Socrates.  He 
found  a  religion  already  existing  in  China,  with  a  very 
practical  system  of  morals,  which  first  and  last  has  always 
given  it  its  special  character.  No  character  in  history  is 
less  mythological  than  Confucius.  He  is  no  demigod  whose 
biography  consists  chiefly  of  fable,  but  a  real  person.  The 
facts  of  his  life,  the  personal  aspect  of  the  man,  the  places 
where  he  lived,  the  petty  kings  under  whom  he  served,  are 
all  known.  He  was  a  critic  of  the  ancient  books  composed 
by  earlier  sages.  He  wrote  a  history  of  the  times  imme- 
diately preceding  his  own.  He  edited  the  national  book 
of  history,  the  "  Shoo-king."  He  published  a  collection  of 
national  poetry.  He  attempted  to  give  a  philosophical 
character  to  the  ancient  divining  book  called  the  "  Yih- 
king," — not  surely  because  he  had  any  predilection  for 
divination,  but  because  he  revered  the  memory  of  the 
celebrated  men  who  had  transmitted  it.  So  high  was  liis 
respect  for  antiquity,  that  he  could  not  think  slightingly 
of  the  system  of  divination  which  had  been  practised  by 
the  best  Chinese  kings  up  to  and  beyond  the  boundary 
line  between  history  and  fable.  He  also  edited  a  work 
upon  the  state  religion  which  described  the  rites,  popular 
and  imperial,  which  are  to  be  performed  to  the  superior 
powers. 

Confucius  taught  3000  disciples,  of  whom  the  more 
eminent  became  influential  authors.  Like  Plato  and  Xeno- 
phon,  they  recorded  the  sayings  of  their  master,  and  his 
maxims  and  arguments,  preserved  in  their  works,  were 
afterwards  added  to  the  national  collection  of  the  sacred 
books  called  the  Nine  Classics. 

There  was  nothing  ascetic,  nothing  spiritual,  in  the  reh- 
gion  of  Confucius.  The  questions  to  which  it  replied  were,. 
How  shall  I  do  my  duty  to  my  neighbour  ?     How  shall  I 


6  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

best  discharge  the  duty  of  a  virtuous  citizen  ?  It  attempted 
no  reply  to  the  higher  questions,  How  am  I  connected  with 
the  spiritual  world  beyond  what  I  see  ?  What  is  the  destiny 
of  my  immaterial  nature?  How  can  I  rise  above  the 
dominion  of  the  passions  and  of  the  senses  ?  Another 
religion  attempted  to  reply  to  these  inquiries,  but  it  made 
\,poor  work  of  the  answers. 

Contemporary  with  Confucius,  there  was  an  old  man, 
afterwards  known  as  Laou-tsoo,  who  meditated  in  a 
philosophic  mood  upon  the  more  profound  necessities  and 
capacities  of  the  human  soul.  He  did  so  in  a  way  that 
Confucius,  the  prophet  of  the  practical,  could  not  well 
comprehend.  He  conversed  with  him  once,  but  never 
repeated  his  visit,  for  he  could  not  understand  him.  Laou- 
tsoo  recommended  quiet  reflection.  Water  that  is  still  is 
also  clear,  and  you  may  see  deeply  into  it.  Noise  and  pas- 
sion are  fatal  to  spiritual  progress.  The  stars  are  invisible 
through  a  clouded  sky.  Nourish  the  perceptive  powers  of 
the  soul  in  purity  and  rest.  A  philosopher,  called  Chwang- 
chow,  who  seconded  him  in  these  researches,  was  not  only 
very  meditative  and  fond  of  soaring  high  in  the  region  of 
pui'e  ideas,  but  was  also  sarcastic  and  controversial.  He 
threw  ridicule  on  the  want  of  philosophical  depth  exhibited 
by  Confucius,  and  extolled  the  doctrine  of  Taou,  the  name 
which  the  system  of  Laou-tsoo  had  assumed.  Their  followers 
were  called  Taouists ;  but  it  was  not  said  by  the  leaders 
of  the  new  sect  how  their  principles  should  be  practically 
carried  out,  so  that  their  disciples  were  left  to  choose  what 
discipline  and  mode  of  operation  they  pleased  to  constitute 
the  religious  life  and  to  effect  its  objects.  They  became 
alchemists,  astrologers,  and  geomancers,  or  else  they  adopted 
the  hermit  life.  It  was  not  till  many  years  after  that  they 
imitated,  from  the  Buddliists,  the  monastic  system  and  idol 
worship. 

It  was  in  the  first  century  of  the  Christian  era  that 
Buddhism  entered  China  from  India.  In  obedience  to  a 
dream,  the  Emperor  Ming-te  sent  ambassadors  to  the  West 


BUDDHISM  AND  BRAHMANISM.  7 

to  bring  back  a  god  from  thence.  They  returned  with  au 
image  of  Buddha;  and  soon  after  some  monks  from  the 
banks  of  the  Ganges  came  to  the  Chinese  court  to  propa- 
gate their  religion.  During  several  centuries  this  new 
faith  struggled  for  existence  and  inlEluence  in  the  country. 
The  emperors  treated  it  with  alternate  patronage  and  per- 
secution. The  Buddhists  from  India  came  peaceably, 
teaching  the  Chinese  to  revere  their  pompous  ritual  and 
their  placid,  benevolent,  and  thoughtful  divinities.  They 
spread  among  them  the  doctrine  of  the  separate  existence 
of  the  soul,  and  its  transmigration  into  the  bodies  of 
animals.  They  also  pleased  their  imaginations  with 
splendid  pictorial  scenes  of  far-away  worlds,  filled  with 
light,  inhabited  by  Buddhas,  Bodhisattwas,  and  angelic 
beings,  and  richly  adorned  with  precious  stones,  charming 
animals,  and  lovely  flowers.  In  this  way  they  enticed  the 
Chinese  into  idolatry. 

The  difierence  between  Buddhism  and  Brahmanism  con- 
sists very  much  in  this.  The  Buddhists  place  the  popular 
Hindoo  divinities  in  a  very  humble  position.  They  allow 
them  to  exist,  but  they  give  them  very  little  power; 
they  are  made  to  act  as  listening  pupils  or  as  keepers 
of  the  door  to  Buddha  and  his  disciples.  The  common 
Hindoos  suppose  these  same  divinities,  Brahma,  Seeva, 
Shakra,  &c.,  to  have  very  great  influence,  and  to  be  con- 
stantly exercising  a  control  over  human  affairs.  They 
erect  temples  specially  to  them,  deprecating  their  anger, 
and  earnestly  desiring  their  protection.  The  Buddhists 
pay  them  no  such  honours.  There  is  no  terror  to  them 
in  the  name  of  a  god.  They  believe  that  higher  power 
belongs  to  Buddha,  the  self-elevated  man.  In  this  there 
is  one  essential  difference  between  the  two  relicrious. 

There  is  a  remarkable,  though  a  less,  distinction  between 
the  Buddhism  of  China  and  of  Tibet.  In  regard  to  philo- 
sophy there  is  little  or  no  difference ;  but  in  Tibet  there 
is  a  hierarchy  which  exercises  political  power.  In  Cliina 
this  could  not  be.     The  Grand  Lama  and  many  other 


S  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

Lamas  in  I\Iongolia  and  Tibet  assume  the  title  of  "  Living 
Buddlia."  In  him  most  of  all  Buddha  is  incarnate,  as  the 
people  are  taught  to  think.  He  never  dies.  When  the 
body  in  which  Buddha  is  for  the  time  incarnate  ceases  to 
perform  its  functions,  some  infant  is  chosen  by  the  priests 
who  are  intrusted  with  the  duty  of  selectmg,  to  become 
the  residence  of  Buddha,  till,  in  turn,  it  grows  up  to  man- 
hood and  dies.  No  Buddhist  priest  in  China  pretends  to 
be  a  "  living  Buddha,"  or  to  have  a  right  to  the  exercise  of 
political  power.  In  Tibet,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Grand 
Lama,  as  chief  of  the  "  living  Buddhas,"  not  only  holds  the 
place  of  the  historical  Buddha,  long  since  dead,  actmg  as  a 
sort  of  high-priest,  he  also  exercises  sovereignty  over  the 
country  of  Tibet,  ruling  the  laity  as  well  as  the  clergy,  and 
being  only  subordinate  to  the  lord  paramount,  the  Emperor 
of  China. 

In  the  study  of  Buddhism,  the  distinction  between  the 
northern  and  southern  form  should  be  always  kept  in  view. 
It  is  to  Burnouf  that  we  owe  the  first  clear  separation  of 
these  two  chief  parties  into  which  the  Buddhists  are 
divided.  The  priests  of  Ceylon,  Birmah,  and  Siam  have 
their  sacred  books  in  the  Pali  language,  which  is  later  in 
age  than  the  Sanscrit.  The  monks  of  Nepaul,  Tibet,  China, 
and  the  other  northern  countries  where  tliis  religion  is  pro- 
fessed, either  preserve  the  books  of  their  religion  in  San- 
scrit, or  have  translations  made  immediately  from  Sanscrit. 
Sanscrit  is  the  mother  of  Pali,  and  was  spoken  quite  late 
in  some  of  the  mountainous  kingdoms  of  Northern  India. 
Another  great  distinction  is  in  the  books  themselves.  The 
fundamental  books  of  both  the  great  Buddhist  parties 
appear  to  be  the  same,  but  the  northern  Buddhists  have 
added  many  important  works  professing  to  consist  of  the 
sayings  of  Buddha,  yet  in  reality  fictitious.  They  belong 
to  the  school  called  the  Great  Development  School,  wliich 
is  so  denominated  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Lesser  Develop- 
ment School,  common  to  the  north  and  the  south.  In  the 
additions  made  by  the  northern  Buddhists  are  included  the 


BUDDHISM.  9 

fiction  of  the  Western  Paradise  an3  tlie  fable  of  AmitalDha 
and  Kwan-yin,  the  Goddess  of  Mercy.  These  personages 
are  exclusively  northern,  and  are  entirely  unknown  to  the 
south  of  Nepaul.  In  the  south  the  Hindoo  traditions  in 
respect  to  cosmogony  and  mythology  are  adhered  to  more 
rigidly ;  while  in  the  north  a  completely  new  and  far  more 
extensive  universe,  with  divinities  to  correspond,  is  repre- 
sented to  exist  in  the  books,  and  is  believed  to  exist  by 
the  people. 

The  Buddhism  of  Mongoha  is  derived  from  Tibet,  as 
that  of  Corea,  Japan,  and  Cochin  China  is  from  China. 
There  are  no  more  devout  adorers  of  the  Grand  Lama 
than  the  ]\iongols,  and  on  account  of  the  religious  pre- 
dilections of  these  rude  tribes,  the  Tartar  emperors  have 
always  paid  great  respect  to  the  priests  who  follow  the 
Tibetan  form  of  Buddhism.  Several  large  monasteries 
exist  at  Peking  and  at  Woo-tae-shan-in-shanse,  where 
many  thousand  Tibetan  and  Mongolian  lamas  (the  Tibetan 
name  for  monk)  are  supported  at  the  expense  of  the 
Government.  In  the  countries  to  the  east  of  China,  the 
translations  made  from  Sanscrit  into  Chinese  are  em- 
ployed. The  names  of  divinities  are  also  preserved,  as 
are  the  schools  into  which  the  Chinese  Buddhists  have 
become  divided  on  account  of  their  differences  in  opinion 
on  matters  of  philosophy. 

All  these  forms  of  Buddhism  have  come  from  a  common 
origin.  It  was  Shakyamuni,  who,  according  to  some  autho- 
rities, lived  in  the  seventh  century  before  Christ,  that  in- 
stituted the  monastic  life  of  Buddhism  and  the  practice 
of  public  preaching.  The  Buddhists  of  China  very  seldom 
now  discharge  the  duty  of  public  preaching,  but  the  name 
is  kept  up,  and  a  room  in  the  monasteries  is  set  apart  for 
it.  This  great  religious  leader  lived  to  a  ripe  old  age,  and 
taught  many  disciples.  His  doctrines  spread  rapidly  during 
his  life  and  after  his  death.  His  remains  were  universally 
revered  as  eminently  sacred,  and  worthy  of  religious  ado- 
ration.   A  hair,  a  tooth,  a  piece  of  bone,  a  particle  of  hair 


10  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

in  a  transformed  state,  were  preserved  in  temples,  or  liad 
costly  tombs  erected  over  them  or  near  them.  This  was 
the  origin  of  the  pagodas  of  China,  A  pagoda  is  an  orna- 
mental tomb  erected  over  the  remains  of  a  Buddhist  priest, 
or  intended  for  the  safe  keeping  of  holy  relics.  This  ori- 
ginal design  has,  however,  often  been  departed  from,  and 
buildings  of  this  sort  are  erected  in  many  cases  as  orna- 
ments to  monasteries,  and  because  the  neighbours  believe 
that  in  the  presence  of  a  pagoda  they  have  security  from 
certain  calamities  that  might  befall  their  agriculture,  their 
trade,  or  their  dwellings.^ 

After  some  time  Buddhism  became  the  favourite  religion 
of  the  kings  of  India.  Buddha  himself,  the  historical  person 
distinguished  with  that  title,  belonged  to  the  Kshatrya,  or 
royal  caste,  which  predisposed  them  in  his  favour.  But 
early  in  the  Christian  era  the  Brahmans  exerted  them- 
selves to  destroy  the  new  religion  that  had  sprung  up  in 
India.  They  succeeded  at  last  in  driving  it  out  of  Hin- 
dostan.  This  persecution  led  to  the  wide  propagation  of 
Buddhism  in  the  neighbouring  countries.  When  the 
Chinese  Heuen-tsang  visited  the  sacred  places  of  his 
religion,  near  Benares  and  Patna,  in  the  seventh  century, 
he  found  that  Buddhism  had  very  much  declined.  It  was 
no  long  time  afterwards  that  it  almost  entu^ely  disappeared 
from  India. 

The  chapters  of  this  work  are  a  series  of  sketches,  illus- 
trative of  the  religious  condition  of  the  Chinese  as  affected 
by  the  mutual  relation  of  these  three  religions  to  each 
other.  There  are  other  religions  in  China,  and  something 
is  also  said  of  them ;  but  these  three  are  far  the  most  influ- 
ential in  point  of  numbers  and  social  position. 

Eesearches  into  the  religions  of  mankind  have  a  high 
interest  of  their  own;  no  subject  out  of  the  domain  of 
pure  truth  can  have  more.  But  perhaps  the  most  impor- 
tant circumstance  in  studies  of  this  nature  is  the  bearing 

1  Many  details  on  the  subject  of  pagodas  are  collected  by  Mr.  I.Iilne  in  bis 
work  "Life  in  China." 


FOREIGN  INFL  UENCE  INCREA  SING.  1 1 

that  tliey  have  upon  tlie  future  spread  of  Christianity. 
These  systems  take  the  place  in  the  belief  of  mankind 
that  ought  to  be  held  by  the  doctrines  of  the  Bible.  In 
subverting  the  ancient  idolatries  of  Europe,  learned  argu- 
ments against  them  and  apologies  for  Christianity  were 
written.  To  overthrow  the  religions  of  the  East,  the 
Christian  advocate  there  must  make  great  use  of  the  press. 
The  careful  study  of  the  articles  of  a  heathen's  faith,  and 
of  the  superstitions  to  which  his  religious  susceptibilities 
cling,  becomes  necessary.  The  work  now  in  the  reader's 
hands  is  a  sort  of  introduction  to  these  studies  in  the 
Chinese  field. 

England  has  now  opened  China  to  the  Christian  world. 
The  attention  of  the  statesman,  the  merchant,  and  the  man 
of  science,  is  drawn  to  it  as  a  country  that  must  henceforth 
be  the  scene  of  increased  European  enterprise.  Commerce 
must  thrive  there  in  a  gTowing  ratio.  Travellers  in  pursuit 
of  new  information  in  geography,  geology,  and  natural 
history  must  be  attracted  there  from  all  countries  where 
these  sciences  are  studied  with  zeal.  Various  foreign  powers 
will  struggle  there  for  predominating  influence.  None  of 
these  different  classes  of  men  who  visit  China,  or  study  it 
through  books,  can  be  expected  to  pass  by  its  religious 
condition ;  but  this  subject  is  most  important  of  all  to  those 
who  desire  to  see  the  Christian  faith  becoming  triumphant 
there  over  all  opposing  systems. 

Christianity  was  said,  by  some  of  the  early  Eomish  mis- 
sionaries, to  have  been  introduced  into  China  by  the  Apostle- 
Thomas.  This  statement,  they  said,  there  was  evidence 
for  in  the  traditions  of  the  Chinese.  The  Buddhists  speak 
of  a  celebrated  ascetic  named  Tamo  as  having  come  from 
India  by  sea  early  in  the  sixth  century.  His  full  name  iu 
Sanscrit  was  Bodhidharma.  There  is  no  want  of  pai-ticular 
information  respecting  liim  as  to  his  religious  opinions  and 
his  biography.  There  were  at  the  time  3000  Hindoos  in 
China  helping  to  propagate  the  Buddhist  faith.  The  early 
Eomish  missionaries,  having  very  insufficient  information 


12  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

on  Chinese  history  and  religions,  caught  at  the  name  Tamo 
as  a  Chinese  form  of  the  word  Thomas,  and  the  description 
of  his  personal  character,  as  a  severe  ascetic  and  worker  of 
miracles,  decided  them  in  regarding  him  as  identical  with 
the  Christian  apostle. 

"Whether  Christianity  was  preached  in  that  country  he- 
fore  the  time  of  the  Syrian  Christians  we  do  not  know. 
The  Jews  arrived  there  much  earlier  than  the  ISTestorians, 
If  there  were  also  teachers  of  Christianity,  all  liistorical 
traces  of  them  are  wanting  till  the  Tang  dynasty.  What 
we  know  of  the  ISTestorian  missions  extends  from  a.d.  636 
to  781,  the  period  included  in  the  Chinese  monument 
erected  by  the  converts  of  those  missions,  and  containing  a 
short  history  of  them,  with  an  abstract  of  the  Christian 
religion.  This  monument,  found  buried  in  the  soil  two 
centuries  ago,  shows  that  though  afterwards  they  declined 
and  disappeared,  it  was  not  from  want  of  zeal  in  the  first 
missionaries.  For  the  first  century  and  a  half  they  extended 
themselves  rapidly.  Their  bishops  and  archbishops  were 
appointed  from  the  schools  in  Mesopotamia,  the  head- 
quarters of  the  missions.  It  was  the  Syrian  missionaries 
that  first  taught  Christianity  to  the  Mongols,  and  intro- 
duced among  them  the  art  of  writing.  The  present  Mon- 
golian alphabet,  which  is  that  used  by  the  Manchoos  in 
Cliina,  is  a  modification  of  the  Syrian.  Prester  John  was 
a  Tartar  prince,  who  became  the  neophyte  of  the  same 
zealous  missionaries.  Like  the  other  Oriental  churches, 
the  Nestorians  gradually  lost  their  ardent  faith  and  evan- 
gelistic enthusiasm.  Their  missionaries  ceased  to  visit 
China,  and  the  converts  there  gradually  diminished,  till 
the  last  remains  of  them  were  lost  in  the  troubles  that  in 
the  fourteenth  century  attended  the  expulsion  of  the  Mon- 
gols from  China.  Native  authors  speak  of  three  foreign 
sects  as  having  existed  in  the  seventh  centmy  in  China :  the 
Eoman  (Ta-tsin),i  the  Manicheaus  (Mani),  and  the  Mahoni- 

^  Some  Eomanist  writers  translate     Nestorian  tablet  at  Se-ngan-foo,  pre- 
Ta-tsin,  Judaea.     Mr.   Wylie,  in  his     fers  to  render  it  Syria, 
interesting  and  valuable  notes  on  tlie 


ROMAN  CATHOLIC  MISSIOMS.  13 

medans.  By  the  "Eoman"  they  mean  the  IsTestorian 
Christians,  who  belonged,  at  the  time  they  reached  China, 
to  the  Eastern  Eoman  Empire,  and  who  assumed  the  name 
that  they  found  already  in  use  in  China  to  designate  the 
part  of  the  world  from  which  they  came.  It  is  curious  to 
find  traces  of  the  Manicheans  in  China.  The  word  Mani 
can  scarcely  mean  any  other  religionists  than  they,  and 
church  history  tells  how  widely  they  were  spread  in  the 
time  of  Auaustiue.  A  circumstance  still  more  curious  is, 
tliat  Manes  derived  part  of  his  system  from  the  Buddhists. 
So  Neander  tells  us.  Eesident  in  Persia,  he  had  Christi- 
anity on  the  west,  Buddhism  on  the  east,  and  the  system 
of  Zoroaster  in  his  own  locality.  His  religion  was  derived 
from  these  three  sources.  Eeferring  to  Chinese  history  of 
a  time  very  little  later,  we  find  notices  of  liis  sect,  of  the 
Parsees  or  fire-worshippers,  of  Christianity  in  the  Nestorian 
form,  and  of  Buddhism,  existing  side  by  side.  Buddhism 
only  was  become  the  popular  faith  through  all  China.  The 
other  three  were  but  striving  for  existence,  and  in  a  few 
centuries  they  entirely  died  out. 

The  next  attempt  made  to  introduce  Christianity  was 
by  the  Papal  missionaries  of  the  Mongolian  period.  One 
result  of  the  extraordinary  career  of  Zinghis  Khan  was  the 
opening  of  the  way  for  travellers  to  and  fro  across  the  vast 
XDlains  of  Central  Asia.  What  was  impracticable  while  the 
nomad  races  of  Tartary  were  without  a  head,  and  while 
Asia  was  split  into  small  kingdoms,  became  easy  of  accom- 
fjlishment  when  the  short-lived  empire  of  the  Mongols  was 
formed.  It  was  then  that  the  Polos  resided  for  some  time 
in  China,  and  that  our  own  Sir  John  Mandeville  served  as 
a  soldier  for  several  years  under  the  Emperor  of  China.  It 
was  then,  also,  that  Archbishop  John  of  Peking,  a  mission- 
ary from  the  Pope,  attempted,  during  a  lengtliened  resi- 
dence, to  establish  a  permanent  mission  in  the  metropolis 
of  the  Grand  Khan. 

In  the  time  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  the  Pioman  Catholic 
Church  recommenced  its  efforts  to  propagate  Latin  Christi- 


14  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

anity  in  China.  This  time  they  were  more  successful,  for 
they  made  greater  exertions  than  before.  It  was  the  age 
for  new  enterprises.  America  and  the  way  to  India  had 
been  discovered  a  hundred  years  before,  and  missions  had 
been  founded  in  the  Portuguese  settlements  in  the  East. 
The  system  of  Copernicus  had  been  published  to  the  world, 
and  Protestantism  was  victorious  in  Germany.  The  won- 
derful Cathay  was  once  more  open  to  the  knowledge  of 
Europeans,  and  there  was  a  vast  nation  of  infidels  to  be 
converted  to  the  true  faith.  While  Cathohcism  was  on 
the  wane  in  Europe,  it  might  be  extended  by  missionary 
operations  in  Asia.  The  Jesuits  resolved  to  enter  on  this 
new  field.  Enthusiastic  men  have  never  been  wanting  to 
enlist  under  the  banner  of  Jesuitism.  They  are  charmed 
by  the  grandeur  of  its  plans  and  the  glory  of  the  life  to 
which  it  invites  them.  The  Papacy  was  sagacious  enough 
to  see  that  youths  of  noble  and  self-denying  zeal  could 
have  assigned  to  them  no  more  suitable  occupation  than 
that  of  preaching  Christianity  in  China  and  other  heathen 
lands.  Hence  there  came  a  succession  of  men  from  the 
Jesuit  schools,  wlio,  for  high  scientific  culture  and  devotion 
to  their  religion  and  their  order,  have  not  been  smpassed 
by  any  body  of  missionaries  in  any  age.  The  character  of 
the  converts  beloncring  to  the  Eomanist  communion  at  the 
present  day  in  China  is  probably  superior  to  what  it  is  in 
India  and  in  some  other  heathen  countries,  for  many  among 
them  may  be  met  with  who  have  a  good  acquaintance  with 
the  doctrines  and  facts  of  Cliristianity,  while  the  Eoman 
Catholic  converts  in  India  are,  as  a  class,  extremely 
degraded.  Unfortunately,  Catholicism  must  everywhere 
carry  with  it  the  worship  of  the  Madonna,  the  masses  for 
the  dead,  the  crucifix,  and  the  rosary.  Some  of  the  books 
the  Jesuits  liave  published  in  Chinese  contain  the  purest 
Christian  truth ;  but  it  is  an  unhappy  circumstance  that 
they  must  be  accompanied  by  others  which  teach  frivolous 
superstition.  "We  should  be  better  satisfied  on  meeting 
with  converts  of  enlightened  minds  and  apparently  devout 


PROTESTANT  MISSIONS.  15 

feeling,  if  we  did  not  meet  with  many  more  who,  mstead 
of  revealing  intelligence  and  piety,  have  nothing  to  show 
as  evidence  of  their  Christianity  but  a  crucifix  and  a 

picture. 

The  prospect  of  the  introduction  of  true  Bible  Christi- 
anity into  China  is  upon  the  whole  highly  favourable  and 
encouraging.  The  number  of  conversions  that  have  taken 
place  in  the  free  ports  since  the  war  of  1842  will  well  bear 
comparison  with  those  of  other  countries  where  missionaries 
labour.  Among  the  native  preachers  that  have  been  trained 
to  assist  the  foreign  missionaries,  there  are  some  devoted  men 
and  eloquent  expounders  of  Bible  truth.  At  Amoy,  five 
hundred  converts  abstain  from  worldly  business  every  Sab- 
bath-day, and  meet  for  praise  and  prayer  in  God's  house. 
Near  to  ISTingpo  there  are  some  interesting  little  communi- 
ties that  have  sprung  up  amidst  the  village  population 
through  the  operations  of  native  catecMsts.  In  the  region 
called  Sanpoh,  noted  for  the  roughness  of  its  inhabitants, 
the  labours  of  these  men  have  been  so  far  aided  with  the 
blessing  of  God  that  the  nucleus  of  two  or  three  bodies  of 
village  Christians  has  been  originated,  which  are  likely  to 
thrive  in  respect  of  numbers  and  of  zeal.  In  the  nighbour- 
hood  of  Shanghai,  missionaries  have  frequently  succeeded 
in  effectin^f  a  residence  in  several  cities  and  towns.  On 
two  occasions  the  British  consul  has,  at  the  instance  of 
Chinese  government  officers,  recalled  one  of  his  country- 
men to  Shancjhai.  But  several  residences  of  some  months 
in  duration  have  been  effected,  and  the  rite  of  baptism  has 
been  administered  to  converts  in  three  cities  and  several 
^dllages  as  the  result  of  these  rural  efforts.  At  the  present 
time  the  work  of  conversion  progresses  in  an  increasing 
ratio,  and  there  is  much  reason  to  take  a  sanguine  view  of 
the  probable  spread  of  Bible  Christianity  in  China. 

There  is  a  hindrance  to  the  Protestant  missions  which 
did  not  meet  the  agents  of  the  propaganda.  The  practice 
of  opium-smoking,  entailing  much  personal  suffering  ami 
family  wretchedness,  is  a  great  hindrance  to  the  success  of 


l6  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

missionary  efforts.  The  introduction  of  opium  by  foreign 
merchants  has  given  to  the  nations  engaged  in  the  traffic 
an  ill  name  among  the  Chinese.  England  has  the  greatest 
share  in  the  dislike  that  the  Chinese  feel  for  those  who 
brino-  opium  to  their  shores.  They  remember  that  we 
fought  for  freedom  of  trade  in  this  deleterious  article  of 
commerce ;  and  now  they  will  remember  also  that  it  was 
through  our  influence,  employed  in  the  hour  of  our  suc- 
cess, that  their  Government  was  induced  to  class  it  with 
legitimate  imports.  These  things  grievously  interfere  with 
our  good  reputation  among  the  people  of  that  country,  and 
lead  them  to  feel  a  prejudice  against  our  religion.  ]\Iis- 
sionaries  from  Great  Britain  have  not  a  fair  field  for  their 
efforts  in  China  while  the  national  honour  is  still  stained 
by  the  cultivation  of  the  poppy  and  the  preparation  of 
opium  under  the  immediate  direction  of  the  Indian  Go- 
vernment. If  free  trade  may  not  be  interfered  with,  our 
Government,  at  least,  should  not  make  the  providing  of 
opium  for  the  Chinese  market  a  national  act.  Every 
British  missionary  would  rejoice  if  he  could  say  to  those 
who  so  often  ask  him  why  his  countrymen  bring  opium, 
"  Our  nation  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  traffic  or  with  the 
preparation  of  this  drug."  He  could  meet  the  questions 
and  taunts  of  his  Chinese  auditors  far  better  if  he  were 
able  so  to  speak. 

This  is  not  the  place  to  enter  upon  the  opium  question, 
except  to  show,  as  has  just  been  done,  its  bearing  on  our 
missionary  operations.  On  these  its  effects  are  too  mis- 
chievous and  too  painful  not  to  produce  depressing 
thoughts  in  every  missionary's  mind.  But  a  correction 
needs  to  be  made  of  the  mistaken  opinion,  that  the 
Chinese  have  rendered  opium  contraband  only  for  fear 
of  losing  their  silver.  This  error  has  been  committed  by 
some  who,  with  the  means  of  information  at  their  com- 
mand, outiht  to  have  known  the  Chinese  better.  Mr. 
Crawfurd  said  once  at  Leeds,  in  a  lecture  on  China,  "  The 
moral  branch  of  the  argument,  as  used  by  the  Chinese,  is 


INCREASE  OF  OPIUM-SMOKIXG.  i; 

a  mere  make-weight  to  assist  the  real  one,  which  is,  that 
opium  was  robbing  China  of  the  precious  metals." 

These  words,  used  by  one  who  had  been  many  years 
resident  in  the  East,  were  adapted  to  convey  quite  a  wrong 
impression,  and  to  do  harm  in  proportion  to  the  experi- 
ence and  authority  of  the  speaker.  The  reason  of  the 
antipathy  of  the  Chinese  to  opium  is,  that  it  injures  the 
moral  character  of  individuals,  involves  them  in  habits 
which  dissipate  the  wealth  of  families,  robs  men  of  the 
right  government  of  themselves,  renders  them  indolent 
and  sensual,  and  too  often  occasions  them  a  wretched 
existence  and  an  early  grave.  Certainly  there  has  been 
quite  enough  in  the  rapid  spread  of  opium-smoking  to 
alarm  the  Chinese.  If  such  a  habit  had  grown  up  in  our 
own  country  in  as  short  a  time,  the  alarm  with  which  it 
would  have  been  witnessed  would  have  been  caused  far 
more  by  deep  moral  and  religious  sentiments  than  by  the 
circumstance  that  it  would  seriously  affect  our  money 
market.  Much  more  must  it  be  so  with  the  Chinese,  who 
thoroughly  understand  what  morality  is,  while  they  know 
little  of  the  modern  science  of  political  economy. 


10  B 


(  i8) 


CHAPTER  II. 

IMPERIAL    WORSHIP. 

The  imperial  worship  of  China  is  ancient,  elaborate,  and 
solemn.  At  the  establishment  of  each  new  line  of  em- 
perors fresh  regulations  in  regard  to  sacrifices  are  enjoined, 
but  it  is  usual  to  follow  old  precedents  to  a  very  large 
extent. 

The  study  of  the  old  Chinese  worship  is  specially  inter- 
esting, because  it  takes  us  back  to  the  early  history  of  the 
Chinese  people,  and  introduces  us  to  many  striking  points 
of  comparison  with  the  patriarchal  religion  of  the  Old 
Testament,  and  with  the  worship  of  the  kings  of  Nineveh, 
Babylon,  and  Egypt. 

In  the  year  1644,  at  Peking,  the  first  of  the  Manchu 
line  of  emperors,  on  the  first  day  of  the  tenth  lunar  month, 
proceeded  to  the  altar  of  Heaven  and  Earth  to  offer  sacri- 
iice,  and  announce  that  he  had  mounted  the  throne  of 
China. 

The  prayer  in  which  this  announcement  was  made  was 
in  great  part  as  follows  : — 

"  I,  the  son  of  heaven,  of  the  Great  Pure  dynasty, 
humbly  as  a  subject  dare  to  make  an  announcement  to 
imperial  Heaven  and  sovereign  Earth.  Though  the  world 
is  vast,  God^  looks  on  all  without  partiality.  My  imperial 
grandfather  received  the  gracious  decree  of  Heaven,  and 
founded  a  kingdom  in  the  East,  which  became  firmly 
established.     My  imperial  father  succeeding  to  tlie  king- 

1  God  is  here  Te,  an  abbreviation  second  personal  pronoun,  winch  could 
of  Shang-te,  the  ancient  name  for  God  not  be  employed  without  a  breach  of 
in  China.     It  is  used  iu  place  of  the    reverence. 


PRA  YER  OF  THE  EMPEROR  SHUN-CHE.  19 

dom,  extended  it  till  it  grew  wider  and  more  powerful.  1, 
Heaven's  servant,  in  my  poor  person,  became  the  inheritor 
of  the  dominion  they  transmitted. 

"  "Wlien  the  Ming  dynasty  was  coming  to  its  end,  traitors 
and  men  of  violence  appeared  in  crowds,  involving  the 
people  in  misery.  China  was  without  a  ruler.  It  fell  to 
me  reverentially  to  accept  the  responsibility  of  continuing 
the  meritorious  work  of  my  ancestors.  I  saved  the  people, 
exterminated  those  who  oppressed  them,  and  now,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  desire  of  all,  I  fix  the  urns  of  empire  at 
Yen-king  at  present.  I  am  told  by  all  that  the  divine 
assistance  must  not  be  left  unrecognised  or  repaid  by  in- 
gratitude, and  that  I  ought  to  ascend  the  throne,  and 
restore  order  to  the  ten  thousand  kingdoms. 

"  I,  receiving  Heaven's  favour,  and  in  agreement  with 
the  wishes  of  the  people,  on  this  the  first  day  of  the  tenth 
month,  announce  to  Heaven  that  I  have  asc-ended  the 
throne  of  the  empire,  that  the  name  I  have  chosen  for  it 
is  the  Ta-tsing  (Great  Pure)  dynasty,  and  that  the  title 
of  niy  reign  is,  as  before,  Shun-che. 

"  I  beg  reverentially  of  Heaven  and  Earth  to  protect 
and  assist  the  empire,  so  that  calamity  and  disturbance 
may  soon  come  to  an  end,  and  the  empire  enjoy  universal 
peace.  For  this  I  humbly  pray,  and  for  the  acceptance  of 
this  sacrifice." 

Officers  were  despatched  at  the  same  time  to  the  Temple 
of  Ancestors,  and  to  the  altars  of  the  spirits  of  Grain  and 
Land,  to  offer  sacrifices  and  make  similar  announcements. 

The  chief  centre  of  the  religious  solemnities  embraced 
in  the  imperial  worship  is  the  altar  of  Heaven.  This  is  in 
the  outer  city  of  Peking,  and  is  distant  two  miles  from  the 
palace. 

There  are  two  altars,  the  southern,  which  is  called 
Yuen-kew,  or  "  round  hillock,"  and  the  northern,  which 
has  upon  it  a  lofty  temple,  called  Che-nien-tien,  "  temple 
for  prayers  for  (a  fruitful)  year." 

Eeside  special  occasions,  such  as  the  establishment  of  a 


20  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

dynasty,  the  conclusion  of  a  successful  military  campaign, 
or  the  accession  of  an  emperor,  there  are  three  regular 
services  in  each  year.  They  are  at  the  winter  solstice,  at 
the  beginning  of  spring,  and  at  the  summer  solstice.  The 
first  and  last  of  these  are  performed  on  the  southern  altar, 
the  second  at  the  northern. 

The  spectacle  is  most  imposing.  The  Emperor  proceeds 
the  evening  before,  drawn  by  an  elephant,  and  accompa- 
nied by  grandees,  princes,  and  attendants,  to  the  number 
of  about  two  thousand.  He  passes  several  hours  of  the 
night  "within  the  park  of  the  altar  of  Heaven,  in  a  struc- 
ture called  Chai-kung,  or  Palace  of  Fasting,  which  corre- 
sponds to  the  "  Lodge  for  passing  the  night  while  upon 
the  road,"  mentioned  ^  in  the  classical  work  "  Chow-le." 

Here  the  Emperor  prepares  himself  by  quiet  thought 
for  the  sacrifice.  He  spends  the  time  in  silence ;  and,  to 
remind  him  of  the  duty  of  serious  meditation,  a  copper 
man  fifteen  inches  high,  attired  as  a  Tauist  priest,  is  car- 
ried in  the  procession,  and  placed  before  him  on  his  right, 
as  he  sits  in  the  fasting-hall.  The  ima^e  bears  in  its  hand 
a  tablet  inscribed,  "  Fast  for  three  days."  It  is  intended 
to  assist  the  Emperor  to  keep  his  thoughts  fixed.  The 
idea  is,  that  if  there  be  not  pious  thoughts  in  his  mind,  the 
spirits  of  the  unseen  will  not  come  to  the  sacrifice.  The 
three  fingers  of  the  left  hand  of  the  image  are  placed  over 
the  mouth,  to  teach  silence  to  the  monarch  of  three  hun- 
dred millions  of  people  while  he  prepares  himself  for  the 
ceremony.- 

The  altar  of  Heaven  consists  of  three  marble  terraces, 
circular,  and  ascended  by  twenty-seven  steps.  The  upper- 
most of  the  three  terraces  is  paved  with  eighty-one  stones, 
arranged  in  circles.  It  is  on  a  round  stone  in  the  centre 
of  these  circles  that  the  Emperor  kneels.     Odd  numbers 


^  Loo-tsim-che-slii,  "road  sleeping-    the  Ming  dynasty,  who  gave  the  order 
house."  to  have  this  image  made  for  the  pur- 

'  It  was  Choo-tai-t30o,  founder  of    pose  above  stated,  a.d.  1380. 


THE  ALTARS  OF  HEAVEN  AND  EARTH.        21 

only  are  used,  and  especially  multiples  of  three  and  nine, 
in  the  structure  of  this  altar. 

As  the  visitor  stands  on  this  terrace,  he  sees  on  the 
north  the  chapel  for  preserving  the  tablets,  beyond  it  a 
semicircular  wall,  and  farther  still  the  buildings  connected 
with  the  north  altar  and  temple.  This  temple  is  ninety- 
nine  Chinese  feet  in  height,  and  has  a  triple  roof,  with 
blue  tiles.  Both  altars  are  ascended  by  four  flights  of 
steps,  towards  the  four  cardinal  points.  Behind  the  visi- 
tor, a  stone's  throw  from  the  altar  on  the  south-east,  is 
the  furnace  for  the  burnt-sacrifice,  in  which  a  bullock  is 
consumed  to  ashes.  On  the  south-west  are  three  lofty 
lantern  poles,  the  light  from  which  is  very  conspicuous 
in  the  darkness  of  the  winter  night  at  the  solstice,  when 
the  kneeling  crowd,  headed  by  the  Emperor,  is  engaged  on 
the  successive  terraces  of  the  altar  and  the  marble  pave- 
ment below  in  performing  the  prostrations  appointed  in 
this  the  most  solemn  act  of  Chinese  worship. 

The  two  altars,  with  the  park,  three  miles  in  circuit, 
which  surrounds  them,  date  from  a.d.  142  i,  when  the 
third  emperor  of  the  Ming  dynasty  left  Nanking,  and 
made  Peking  the  capital.  At  first  Heaven  and  Earth  were 
worshipped  together,  according  to  the  appointment  of  the 
Emperor  Tai-tsoo ;  but  in  a.d.  i  5  3  i  it  was  decreed  that 
there  should  be  separate  altars  for  Heaven  and  Earth. 

The  upper  terrace  of  the  great  south  altar  is  220  feet  in 
diameter,  and  nine  feet  high;  the  second  105  feet  in  dia- 
meter, and  eight  feet  high ;  the  tliird  and  lowest  is  fifty- 
nine  feet  in  diameter,  and  eight  feet  one  inch  in  height. 
The  entire  height,  then,  is  twenty-five  feet  two  inches,  but 
the  base  is  already  raised  five  feet  by  a  gradual  ascent. 
The  low  encircling  wall  is  roofed  with  blue  tiles. 

In  place  of  the  green  porcelain  furnace  on  the  south- 
east for  the  burnt  sacrifice,  there  was  anciently  an  altar  on 
the  south  called  Tae-tan.  The  word  tan, "  altar,"  shows  that 
in  the  time  of  the  "  Le-ke,"  one  of  the  classics,  which  uses 
this  term  in  describing  it,  it  was  an  altar,  and  not  a  furnace. 


23  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

The  altar  on  which  the  Emperor  kneels,  and  -where  the 
written  prayer  is  burned,  corresponds  to  the  Jewish  altar 
of  incense.  The  furnace,  or  rather  the  altar,  which  it  now 
represents,  corresponds  to  the  Jewish  altar  of  burut-ofier- 
ing.  The  furnace  is  nine  feet  high  and  seven  feet  wide, 
and  is  placed  outside  the  low  inner  wall  which  surrounds 
the  altar ;  and  when  the  smoke  and  flames  are  ascending, 
and  the  odour  of  the  burning  flesh  is  spreading  on  every 
side,  that  part  of  the  sacrificial  ceremonies  takes  place 
which  is  called  "  looking  at  the  flame  "  {loang  liav?). 

Outside  of  the  furnace  is  the  outer  wall,  distant  150  feet 
from  the  inner.  Beside  it  is  the  pit  for  burying  the  hair 
and  blood  of  the  victims,  a  ceremony  instituted  apparently 
with  the  idea  that  it  would  be  possible  in  this  way  to  con- 
vey the  sacrifice  to  the  spirits  of  the  earth,  just  as  the 
smoke  and  flame  of  the  burnt-offering  convey  the  sacri- 
fice to  the  spirits  of  heaven. 

It  is  impossible  here  to  avoid  seeing  a  striking  resem- 
blance to  the  Roman  sacrifices  which  contained  the  burial 
ceremony,  with  a  similar  idea  attached  to  it,  in  their  wor- 
ship of  the  terrestrial  divinities. 

This  and  the  holocaust  seem  to  link  the  Chinese  sacri- 
fices very  closely  with  the  ancient  religions  of  the  Western 
world. 

The  animals  are  slaughtered  on  the  east  side  of  the  altar, 
everything  appertaining  to  the  kitchen  requning  to  be  upon 
the  east  side. 

They  consist  of  cows,  sheep,  hares,  deer,  and  pigs. 
Horses  were  formerly  used,  but  not  now.^  The  house 
where  these  animals  are  kept  is  on  the  north-west  of  the 
altar,  near  the  hall  in  which  the  musicians  and  dancers 
who  take  part  in  the  sacrificial  ceremonies  meet  to  prac- 
tise for  these  occasions. 

1  Animals  offered  in  sacrifice  must  them  for  sacrifice.      That   which   is 

be  those  in  use  for  human  food.  There  good  for  food  is  good  for  sacrifice  is 

is  no  trace  in  China  of  any  distinction  the  principle  guiding  in  their  selec- 

betweon  clean  and  unclean   animals,  tion. 
as  furnishing  a  principle  in  selecting 


REVERENCE  OF  ANCESTORS.  23 

The  idea  of  a  sacrifice  is  that  of  a  banquet ;  and  when  a 
sacrifice  is  performed  to  the  supreme  spirit  of  Heaven,  the 
honour  paid  is  believed  by  the  Chinese  to  be  increased  by 
inviting  other  guests.  The  emperors  of  China  invite  their 
ancestors  to  sit  at  the  banquet  with  Shang-te,  the  supreme 
ruler.  A  father  is  to  be  honoured  as  heaven,  and  a  mother 
as  earth.  In  no  way  could  more  perfect  reverence  be 
shown  than  in  placing  a  father's  tablet  on  the  altar  with 
that  of  Shang-te.  Yet,  at  the  same  time,  another  idea  is 
present:  the  Emperor  desires,  in  fulfilment  of  the  duty 
of  filial  piety,  to  pay  the  greatest  possible  honour  to  his 
parent.  The  natural  love  of  parents,  and  the  selfish  wish 
to  exalt  their  own  lineage,  have  doubtless  often  had  more 
force  in  the  minds  of  emperors,  when  settling  these  mat- 
ters, than  any  disinterested  wish  they  might  feel  to  honour 
Heaven.  But  then,  again,  they  do  as  they  are  advised. 
The  experienced  and  aged  statesmen  with  whom  they  take 
counsel  act  according  to  precedent,  and  invariably  recom- 
mend the  placing  of  the  Emperor's  ancestral  tablets  on  the 
altar  of  sacrifice  with  that  of  Shang-te.  To  their  opinion 
the  emperors  have  always  assented.  Of  the  five  Tartar 
dynasties  that  have  at  different  times  ruled  China,  there 
has  never  been  one  that  has  not  accepted  the  Chinese 
religion,  and  this  not,  it  may  be,  from  state  reasons  only, 
but  because  the  old  religion  of  the  Tartar  races  was  essen- 
tially  the  same  as  that  of  China. 

On  the  upper  terrace  of  the  altar  the  tablet  of  Shang-te, 
inscribed  "  Hwang-tien  Shang-te,"  is  placed,  facing  south, 
immediately  in  front  of  the  kneeling  Emperor.  The 
tablets  of  the  Emperor's  ancestors  are  arranged  in  two 
rows,  facing  east  and  west.  Offerings  are  placed  before 
each  tablet. 

Large  and  small  millet,  panicled  millet  and  rice,  are 
boiled  as  if  for  domestic  use.  Beef  and  pork  in  slices, 
with  and  without  condiments,  are  presented  in  the  form 
of  soup.  Salt  fish,  pickled  fish,  pickled  slices  of  hares 
and  of  deer,  pickled  onions,  bamboo  shoots,  pickled  parsley 


24  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

and  celery,  pickled  pork  and  vermicelli,  come  next.  The 
condiments  nsed  in  making  the  dishes  are  sesamum  oil, 
soy,  salt,  pepper,  anise  seed,  and  onions. 

The  fruits  offered  are  such  as  chestnuts,  sisujDlius  plums, 
water  chestnuts,  and  walnuts. 

"WTieat  flour  and  buckwheat  flour  are  made  into  balls, 
with  sugar  in  the  middle,  and  afterwards  stamped  so  as  to 
become  flat  cakes. 

Three  cups  of  tsevj^  are  placed  in  front.  Next  comes  a 
bowl  of  soup.  Then  follow  eight  rows  of  basons,  making 
twenty-eight  in  all.  They  consist  of  fruit,  basons  of  rice 
and  other  cereals  boiled,  pastry,  and  various  dishes. 

Jade  stone  and  sill^  offerings  intended  to  be  burnt  are 
placed  behind  these  twenty-eight  dishes.  Then  there  is  a 
whole  heifer,  with  a  brazier  on  each  side  for  burning  the 
offerings. 

Behind  the  heifer  are  placed  the  five  worshipping  im- 
plements of  Buddhism,  namely,  an  urn,  two  candelabra, 
and  two  flower  jars. 

Behind  these  are  more  candelabra,  and  the  table  in  the 
south-west  corner  at  which  the  Emperor  reads  the  prayer. 

On  the  second  terrace,  on  the  east  side,  the  tablet  of 
the  sun  is  placed,  and  also  that  of  the  Great  Bear,  the 
five  planets,  the  twenty-eight  constellations,  and  one  for 
all  the  stars.  On  the  west  side  is  placed  the  tablet  of 
the  moon  spirit,  with  those  of  the  clouds,  rain,  wind,  and 
thunder. 

I  do  not  know  why  some  of  the  dishes  are  looked  on  as 
unsuitable  for  these  spirits ;  but  it  is  curious  to  notice  that 
four  of  the  twenty-eight  dishes  used  in  the  offerings  to 
Shang-te  and  to  the  spirits  of  the  deceased  emperors  are 
here  wanting.  No  jade  stone  offerings  are  presented :  a 
full-grown  bullock  takes  the  place  of  the  young  heifer. 

^  Tsew  is,  in  China,  either  distilled  is  expressive  of  honour.      The  same 

or   not  distilled.     It  is  the  Mongol  mode  of  showing  respect  is  employed 

und  Turkish  aralii  and  arrack,  and  in  the  sacrifices  to  the  Earth    spirit 

the  Japanese  sak.    The  number  three  and  to  the  Emperor's  ancestors. 


THE  EMPEROR  HIGH-PRIEST.  25 

The  five  Buddhist  implemeuts  and  the  gold  lamps  and 
censers  are  all  omitted. 

In  the  offerings  to  the  spirits  of  the  stars,  a  bullock, 
sheep,  and  pig,  all  full  grown,  are  included.  In  other 
respects  the  offerings  are  nearly  the  same  as  to  the  sun 
and  moon. 

Twelve  pieces  of  blue  silk  are  burnt  in  honour  of  Shang-te, 
and  three  of  white  in  honour  of  the  emperors. 

Seventeen  pieces  of  silk,  yellow,  blue,  red,  black,  and 
v/hite,  are  burned  in  honour  of  the  spirits  of  the  heavenly 
bodies,  and  wind  and  rain. 

Several  kinds  of  incense  are  used.  All  are  composed  of 
fragrant  woods  ground  to  sawdust,  and  then  made  up  into 
bundles  of  sticks  or  pastilles  of  various  shapes. 

The  Emperor  is  the  high-priest,  who  acts  personally  or 
by  deputy  in  all  the  public  sacrifices  performed  for  the 
sake  of  obtaining  rain  or  securing  freedom  from  calamities. 
His  position  then  is  like  that  of  the  patriarchs  in  the  reli- 
gion of  Genesis.  He  combines  the  offices  of  chief  magistrate 
and  high-priest. 

The  particulars  of  his  duty  as  priest  of  the  people  are 
such  as  offering  prayer  for  a  good  year,  presenting  the 
offerings,  and  worshipping.  Besides  these,  he  previously 
inspects  the  animals  in  their  sheds  when  living,  and  after- 
wards  when  slain  and  made  ready  for  the  sacrifice. 

On  proceeding  to  the  robiug-tent,  he  washes  his  hands 
and  puts  on  sacrificial  robes.  He  then,  guided  by  the 
directors  of  the  ceremonies,  mounts  the  altar  and  stands 
near  the  kneeling  cushion,  while  all  the  princes  and  nobles 
take  their  places  on  the  steps  and  terraces  of  the  altar  or 
on  the  stone  pavement  below.  When  told  to  kneel,  he 
kneels.  When  told  to  light  incense  and  place  it  in  the 
urns,  he  does  so.  When  led  to  the  tablets  of  his  ancestors 
and  told  to  kneel  before  each  and  kindle  incense  sticks, 
he  does  all  this.  He  is  afterwards  led  back  to  the  chief 
tablet,  and  there  he  performs  the  ceremony  of  the  three 
prostrations  and  nine  knockings  of  the  head.     In  this  he 


26  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

is  immediately  imitated  by  the  attendant  worshippers  in 
their  various  positions. 

The  music,  which  has  been  in  course  of  performance  by 
the  appointed  234  musicians,  stops.  The  Emperor  is  led 
to  the  table  on  which  are  placed  the  offerings  of  jade  and 
silk  which  are  to  be  burned.  Here  he  kneels,  having  the 
heifer  behind,  offers  the  jade  and  silk,  and  rises.  The 
officers  whose  duty  it  is  to  sing  here  interpose  with  a 
song  descriptive  of  the  presentation  of  the  bowls  of  food. 
Other  officers  bring  up  these  bowls,  together  with  hot  broth, 
which  last  they  sprinkle  three  times  on  the  body  of  the 
heifer.  Meantime  the  Emperor  is  standing  on  the  east 
side  of  his  tent. 

More  music  is  now  performed,  the  piece  being  called 
"  The  song  of  universal  peace." 

Upon  this  follows  the  performance  of  the  ceremony  of 
presenting  the  bowls  of  food  before  the  various  tablets  by 
the  Emperor. 

Then  the  first  cup  of  wine  is  presented,  the  Emperor 
officiating.     Appropriate  music  is  performed. 

The  officer  in  charge  of  the  prayer  places  it  on  the  table 
intended  for  this  use,  and  it  is  there  read  by  the  Em- 
peror. It  is,  at  the  sacrifice  in  February,  couched  in  such 
terms  as  the  following : — 

"  I,  your  subject,  by  hereditary  succession  son  of  heaven, 
having  received  from  above  the  gracious  decree  to  nourish 
and  console  the  inhabitants  of  all  regions,  think  with 
sympathy  of  all  men,  earnestly  desirous  of  their  pro- 
sperity. 

"  At  present  looking  to  the  approach  of  the  day  Sin  and 
the  spring  ploughing,  which  is  about  to  take  place,  I 
earnestly  look  up,  hoping  for  merciful  protection.  I  bring 
my  subjects  and  servants  with  offerings  of  food  in  abun- 
dance, a  reverential  sacrifice  to  Shang-te.  Humbly  I  pray 
for  thy  downward  glance,  and  may  rain  be  granted  for  the 
production  of  all  sorts  of  grain  and  the  success  of  all 
agricultural  labours." 


MUSIC  AT  THE  SACRIFICE.  27 

The  remainder  of  the  prayer  is  an  encomium  upon  the 
deceased  emperors  worshipped  on  the  same  occasion. 

After  reading  this  prayer,  the  Emperor  takes  it  to  the 
table  for  silk  offerings  and  the  jade  sceptre.  Here,  kneel- 
ing, he  places  it  in  a  casket  with  the  silk,  and  then  makes 
some  more  prostrations. 

The  second  presentation  of  the  cnp  of  wine  now  takes 
place,  and  after  it  the  tliird,  the  Emperor  officiating. 

The  music  here  takes  the  name  "  The  song  of  excellent 
peace,"  and  "  The  song  of  harmonious  peace." 

The  band  of  musicians  on  the  pavement  below,  numerous 
as  it  is,  is  no  larger  than  that  of  the  dancers,  who  move  in 
a  slow  step  through  several  figures.  When  the  songs  are 
ended,  a  single  voice  is  heard  on  the  upper  terrace  of  the 
altar  chanting  the  words,  "  Give  the  cup  of  blessing  and  the 
meat  of  blessing."  In  response,  the  officer  in  charge  of  the 
cushion  advances  and  kneels,  spreading  the  cushion.  Other 
officers  present  the  cup  of  blessing  and  the  meat  of  bless- 
ing to  the  Emperor,  who  partakes  of  the  wine  and  returns 
them.  The  Emperor  then  again  prostrates  himself,  and 
knocks  his  forehead  three  times  against  the  ground,  and 
then  nine  times  more  to  represent  his  thankful  reception 
of  the  wine  and  meat. 

The  assemblage  of  princes  and  nobles  all  imitate  their 
lord  once  more  at  this  point.  An  officer  calls,  "  Ee- 
move  the  viands."  The  musicians  play  a  piece  suitable 
to  this  action,  and  another  called  the  "  Song  of  glorious 
peace." 

The  spirit  of  Heaven  is  now  escorted  home  again  to  the 
tablet  chapel  on  the  north  of  the  altar. 

The  crier  then  chants  the  words,  "Carry  away  the 
prayer,  the  incense,  the  silk,  and  the  viands,  and  let  them 
be  reverently  taken  to  the  Tae-tan." 

Tae-tan  is  the  old  classical  name  of  the  altar  of  burnt- 
offering,  a  name  still  retained,  while  for  long  centuries  the 
altar  has  given  place  to  a  furnace. 

The  crier  calls,  "  Look  at  the  burning."     The  proper 


28  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

music  is  played,  and  the  Emperor  proceeds  to  the  spot  set 
ajDart  as  most  suitable  for  observing  the  burning. 

The  officers  upon  this  take  the  tablet  on  which  the 
prayer  is  written,  the  worshipping  tablet,  the  incense,  the 
silk,  and  the  viands  to  the  green  furnace,  within  which 
they  are  placed  and  burned. 

At  the  same  time  the  silk,  incense,  and  viands  offered 
to  the  tablets  of  the  emperors  are  taken  to  the  large 
braziers  prepared  for  them,  and  there  burned. 

The  ceremonies  here  terminate,  and  the  Emperor  returns 
to  the  palace. 

The  spirit  of  the  worship  may  be  partly  judged  of  from 
the  hours  at  which  it  is  performed. 

^At  the  south  altar  it  must  be  at  midnight,  because  that 
is  the  hour  called  Tsze.  Tsze  is  the  first  of  the  twelve 
hours,  and  was  applied  to  the  eleventh  month,  or  Decem- 
ber. The  sun  is  at  Tsze  when  he  passes  the  winter  sol- 
stice. The  day  was  divided  into  twelve  parts,  because 
there  are  twelve  lunations  in  a  year.  It  was  natural  to 
begin  counting  the  months  from  the  time  when  the  sun 
was  at  the  lowest  point.  The  time  of  the  solstitial  sacri- 
fice of  winter  should  be  regulated  on  the  principle  that  the 
hour  Tsze  is  on  tliis  account  most  suitable. 

When  the  spring  sacrifice  takes  place  near  the  beginning 
of  the  year,  the  time  chosen  at  present  is  the  first  glimmer- 
ing of  the  daAvn.     But  formerly  midnight  was  the  hour. 

The  sun  is  worshipped  at  the  Sun  altar  at  four  o'clock 
in  the  morninsj,  and  the  moon  on  the  Moon  altar  at  ten  in 
the  evening. 

Not  having  a  true  science  of  nature,  the  Chinese  mind 
puts  circles  and  symbols,  and  the  distinction  of  even  and 
odd  numbers,  in  its  place.  Their  philosophy  is  a  numeri- 
cal or  symbolic  philosophy.  That  learned  Chinese  is  a 
rare  person  who  can  divest  himself  of  the  idea  that  his 
cycles  of  ten,  of  twelve,  and  of  sixty,  represent  something 
substantial  in  nature,  and  may  be.  received  as  necessary 
truth.     Hence  most  of  the  Chinese  are  bv  birth  and  train- 


WORSHIP  OF  THE  EARTH.  29 

ing  believers  in  astrology.  Without  it  they  cannot  be 
born,  marry,  or  die.  Their  fortune-tellers  are  found  to  be 
fundamentally  all  astrologers  and  believers  in  numerical 
cycles,  althougli  they  are  classified  as  physiognomists, 
phrenologists,  or  adepts  in  palmistry  or  geomancy. 

Wherever  the  cycles  of  astrology  and  the  distinction  of 
the  male  and  female  principle  can  be  introduced  in  common 
life,  whether  in  medicine,  the  choice  of  sites  for  houses  and 
graves,  going  on  a  journey,  or  ordering  a  new  suit  of  clothes, 
there  they  will  be  found. 

It  would  be  impossible,  in  fixing  the  hour  of  the  sacri- 
fices in  which  the  Emperor  takes  part,  that  there  should 
be  a  neglect  of  the  secret  laws  of  nature,  which  are  believed 
to  be  brought  to  view  in  the  cycles  of  astrology. 

Something  may  be  perceived  of  the  ideas  of  the  Chinese 
in  recrard  to  their  sacrifices  from  the  discussions  which 
have  taken  place  as  to  whether  the  spirits  of  Heaven  and 
Earth  should  be  worshipped  together  or  separately.  When 
the  present  temple,  with  its  three  roofs,  was  first  made  in 
the  time  of  Yung-lo,  it  was  not  intended  that  there  should 
be  a  separate  altar  to  Earth.  Two  altars  were  made,  the 
northern  and  the  southern ;  the  united  worship  was  per- 
formed at  the  northern,  and  the  colours  of  the  three  roofs 
of  the  temple  erected  on  it  were  yellow,  red,  and  blue,  ^ 
comprising  the  appropriate  colours  of  heaven  and  earth. 
A  century  later  a  discussion  was  instituted  on  the  pro-  - 
priety  of  the  united  worship.  In  consequence  of  this 
discussion,  and  in  accordance  with  the  opinions  of  the 
majority  of  those  who  were  consulted,  it  was  decreed  that 
the  worship  of  Earth  should  in  future  be  separately  con- 
ducted. The  altar  of  Earth  was  constructed  on  the  nortli 
side  of  the  inner  city,  in  an  open  space  beyond  the  walls. 

The  character  of  the  Chinese  imperial  worship  at  the 
Earth  altar  is  substantially  the  same  as  at  the  altar  of 
Heaven,  except  that  instead  of  the  worship  of  star  gods  and 
the  sun  and  moon  we  have  that  of  the  spirits  of  moun- 
tains, rivers,  and  seas. 


30  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

The  account  given  by  Herodotus  of  the  religion  of  the 
ancient  Persians  shows  that  it  consisted  of  much  the  same 
usages  as  those  now  found  in  the  Chinese  imperial  wor- 
ship. The  great  objects  of  nature  were  adored.  The 
heavenly  bodies,  the  mountains,  and  rivers,  were  supposed 
to  have  divinities  presiding  over  them,  and  to  these  deities 
sacrifices  were  presented. 

This  characteristic  comes  clearly  into  view  in  the  wor- 
ship at  the  altar  of  Earth. 

There  are  two  terraces  to  the  altar.  One  is  sixtv  feet 
square,  and  six  feet  two  inches  high.  The  other  is  io6 
feet  square,  and  six  feet  high.  Only  even  numbers  are 
made  use  of  in  the  construction  of  the  altar.  Yellow  tiles 
are  employed  in  roofing  the  walls.  The  steps  on  each  of 
the  four  sides  are  eight  in  number.  A  ditch  surrounds  the 
altar.  It  is  494  feet  four  inches  long,  eight  feet  six  inches 
deep,  and  six  feet  wide. 

Between  the  altar  and  the  ditch  is  a  w^all  six  feet  high, 
and  two  feet  thick,  and  within  it  are  four  open  gateways. 
Outside  of  the  north  gateway,  a  little  to  the  westward,  is 
the  pit  for  burying  the  prayer  and  silk,  which  are  offered 
to  the  spirit  of  Earth.  Beside  it  is  the  spot  where  the  silk 
offered  to  the  spirits  of  the  emperors  worshipped  at  the 
same  time  is  burned. 

On  the  upper  terrace,  when  the  sacrifice  takes  place,  are 
arranged  the  tablet  of  the  spirit  of  Earth  facing  north,  and 
those  of  the  emperors  facing  east  and  west. 

On  the  lower  terrace  fourteen  Chinese  and  Manchoo 
mountains  are  represented  by  fourteen  tablets,  and  the 
seas  and  rivers  of  China  each  by  four  tablets.  Half  of  the 
mountains,  seas,  and  rivers  occupy  the  east  terrace,  and 
half  the  west.  The  seas  are  simply  north,  south,  east,  and 
west.  The  mountains  and  rivers  are  worshipped  by  their 
names,  and  they  are  selected  on  account  of  their  size  and 
sacredness. 

In  the  sacrifice  to  Earth,  the  burial  of  the  prayer  and  the 
silk,  it  is  to  be  noted,  takes  place  at  a  spot  on  the  north- 


BURIAL  OF  OFFERINGS.  31 

west.  The  tablet,  according  to  the  present  arrangement, 
faces  to  the  north,  and  the  spirit,  therefore,  has  the  cere- 
mony in  sight.  The  west  is,  as  being  on  the  left  hand,  the 
position  of  honour.  The  Emperor,  after  the  presentation 
of  the  three  cups  of  wine,  is  directed  to  proceed  to  a  cer- 
tain station  on  the  altar  where  he  can  conveniently  observe 
the  process  of  burying,  which  here  corresponds  to  the 
burning  of  the  prayer  and  silk  in  the  sacrifice  to  the  spirit 
of  Heaven. 

The  prayer  is  as  follows : — "  I,  your  subject,  son  of  heaven 
by  hereditary  succession,  dare  to  announce  to  How-too, 
the  imperial  spirit  of  Earth,  that  the  time  of  the  summer 
solstice  has  arrived,  that  all  living  things  enjoy  the  bless- 
ings of  sustenance,  and  depend  for  it  upon  your  efficient  aid. 
You  are  placed  with  imperial  Heaven  in  the  sacrifices  which 
are  now  j^resented,  consisting  of  jade,  silk,  the  chief  animals 
used  for  food,  with  various  viands  abundantly  supplied." 

The  Emperors  Tae-tsoo,  Tae-tsung,  She-tsoo,  &c.,  are 
reverentially  appointed  to  be  sharers  in  the  sacrifice. 

The  spirit  of  Earth  is  the  only  spirit  beside  the  spirit  of 
Heaven  to  whom  in  prayer  the  Emperor  styles  himself  a 
"  subject." 

The  colour  of  the  jade  presented  is  yellow.  The  prayer 
is  written  on  a  yellow  tablet. 

The  twenty-eight  dishes,  the  three  cups  of  wine,  and 
the  solitary  bowl  of  soup  are  the  same  as  at  the  temple  of 
Heaven.  The  gold  lamps  are  wanting,  as  also  the  gold 
censers,  one  pair  of  the  candelabra,  and  the  flower-vases. 

The  designation  Shang-te  is  applied  to  the  spirit  of 
Heaven  only. 

The  burying  of  the  silk  is  limited  to  the  spirit  of  Earth. 
In  the  case  of  the  offerings  to  the  emperors  whose  tablets 
are  on  the  altar  with  that  of  the  spirit  of  Earth,  they  are 
burnt  in  a  brazier  as  at  the  altar  of  Heaven. 

The  musical  instruments  are  the  same  for  the  spirit  of 
Earth  as  for  the  spirit  of  Heaven,  viz.,  two  kinds  of  stringed 
instruments,  two  kinds  of  flutes,  &c. — sixty-four  in  all ; 


3?  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

but  the  bell  is  gilt  for  the  sake  of  having  it  yellow.  The 
two  hundred  and  four  musicians  and  dancers,  instead  of 
blue,  wear  black  robes  embroidered  with  figures  in  gold. 
Blue,  on  the  other  hand,  is  the  colour  used  in  the  worship 
of  Heaven.l 

The  music  is  accompanied  by  words  arranged  in  irregular 
verse.  There  are  six  lines  of  poetry,  four  of  which  rhyme. 
The  poetic  particle  lii  occurs  in  the  middle  of  each  line, 
dividing  it  into  two  clauses.  Each  line  has  six,  seven, 
eight,  or  nine  words  in  it.  There  are  nine  or  ten  pieces 
of  poetry  at  each  sacrifice,  and  they  are  sung  to  as  many 
melodies  with  instrumental  accompaniments. 

When  the  emperor  sends  an  officer  to  perform  his  duties 
at  the  sacrifice,  the  details  are  much  less  complex.  The 
cup  and  meat  of  blessing,  the  tent,  the  music,  and  other 
accessories  are  omitted.  The  same  omissions  occur  if 
the  Emperor's  son  is  deputed  to  perform  the  ceremonies. 
These  omissions  clearly  show  that  a  priestly  character  is 
attributed  to  the  Emperor  by  virtue  of  his  office. 

The  presentation  of  food  and  wine  to  the  spirits  who  are 
worshipped  indicates  that  the  Chinese  idea  of  a  sacrifice 
to  the  supreme  spirit  of  Heaven  and  of  Earth  is  that  of  a 
banquet.  There  is  no  trace  of  any  other  idea.  The  burn- 
ing of  sacrifices  does  not  appear  to  have  among  this  people 
any  notion  of  substitution.  There  is  in  the  classics  in  the 
"Shoo-king,"  perhaps  the  most  important  of  them  all,  a  state- 
ment respecting  the  ancient  Emperor  Cheng-tang,  B.C.  1800, 
to  the  effect  that  he  acknowledged  himself,  in  the  name  of 
the  people,  to  be  a  sinner  deserving  punishment,  and  re- 
questing that  the  punishment  to  be  inflicted  on  the  people 
might  be  inflicted  instead  upon  him.  So  far  as  this,  it 
may  be  said  that  substitution  is  familiar  to  the  Chinese  in 
connection  with  sacrifices.  But  the  sense  of  life  for  life, 
the  animal  dying  in  place  of  man,  is  not  known  to  them. 

1  Yellow  and  brown  are  both  ex-  soil  in  North  China,  but  black  is  the 
pressed  by  hwang.  The  earth  colour  colour  of  the  north.  The  altar  of 
here  meant  is  the  light  brown  of  the     Earth  is  the  "north  altar,"  Fei-ian. 


WORSHIP  OF  ANCESTORS.  33 

The  imperial  worship  of  ancestors  constitutes  one  of  the 
most  important  portions  of  the  official  worship. 

The  imperial  Temple  of  Ancestors  is  on  the  south-east  of 
the  Woo-imn,  or  chief  gate  of  the  palace.  It  is  called  Tai- 
meacnc,  the  "  great  temple,"  and  is  divided  into  three  prin- 
cipal ticn  or  halls,  and  several  smaller. 

The  front  tien  is  used  for  the  common  sacrifice  to  all 
ancestors  at  the  end  of  the  year.  The  middle  tien  contains 
the  most  important  tablets,  each  in  its  shrine.  Emperors 
and  empresses  are  placed  in  pairs.  They  begin  with  the 
grandfather  of  Shun-che.  All  face  to  the  south.  Ten 
generations  are  now  represented.  The  sacrifices  on  the 
first  day  of  the  first  month  in  each  of  the  four  seasons  are 
offered  in  this  hall. 

Confucius  said  that  the  dead  are  to  be  sacrificed  to  as  if 
living.  There  must,  therefore,  be  clothing  as  well  as  food. 
Chests  of  clothing,  with  all  articles  complete,  such  as  mats 
and  stools,  are  found  here  carefully  stored,  and  are  pre- 
sented with  the  sacrifices. 

In  front  of  this  hall  is  a  court,  on  each  side  of  which 
are  secondary  halls  containing  tablets  of  certain  meri- 
torious persons  who  are  appointed  to  be  guests  at  the 
sacrificial  banc|uets.  Eelatives  occupy  the  eastern  hall, 
and  loyal  officers  the  western. 

In  the  court  on  the  east  is  a  brazier  for  burning  the 
prayer  offered  to  ancestors,  and  the  silk  offered  to  them 
and  to  the  relatives.  On  the  west  is  another  brazier  for 
burning  the  silk  offered  to  meritorious  officers.  At  the 
gate  in  front  there  are  exhibited  twenty-four  ancient 
spears. 

The  back  hall  contains  the  tablets  of  the  sreat-crand- 
father  and  grandmother  of  Shun-che,  and  of  three  genera- 
tions preceding.  The  book  from  which  this  account  is 
extracted  was  published  a.d.  1721,  and  subsequent  changes 
in  the  arrangement  will,  of  course,  be  found  in  later  edi- 
tions. 

The  times  for  sacrifice  are  not  only  the  first  of  every 
10  c 


RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 


third  montli  and  at  the  end  of  the  year,  but  whenever  great 
events  occur. 

The  Emperor,  when  informed  that  the  time  has  come  for 
inspecting  the  prayer,  proceeds  to  the  Paou-lio-tien  or  Chung- 
ho-tien,  both  of  them  state  halls  in  the  palace.  The  prayer, 
written  on  a  yellow  tablet,  is  presented  and  approved. 

The  sacrifices  are  offered  in  the  middle  and  back  halls 
of  the  ancestral  temple  at  the  same  time,  in  order  that 
all  the  imperial  ancestors,  remote  as  well  as  near,  may 
enjoy  them. 

The  tablets  of  emperors  and  empresses  are  arranged  in 
pairs.  Each  has  his  wife  with  him,  and  husband  and  wife 
are  placed  side  by  side.  One  set  of  offerings  is  presented 
before  each  married  pair.  Each  emperor  occupies  the 
east  side.  On  his  left  are  placed  clothing  and  silk.  On 
the  right  of  the  tablet  of  the  empress  there  is  clothing,  but 
no  silk. 

Why  this  distinction  ?  Can  it  be  that  there  is  some- 
thing peculiar  in  the  silk?  Is  there  some  ancient  idea 
connected  with  burnt-offerings  which  is  not  alluded  to  in 
tlie  usual  doctrine,  "  Sacrifice  to  the  spirits  as  if  they  were 
living?"  If  this  were  all,  why  should  not  the  silk  be 
given  to  the  Empress  ?  She  would  need  it  for  clothing  as 
much  as  the  Emperor. 

Yet  she  shares  in  the  silk  placed  near  the  animals,  as 
will  be  seen  in  the  following  plan  of  the  offerings : — 


Tablet  of  Empress. 


Table  and       Three  cups  of  wine, 
stools  with 
clothing.         Two  bowls  of  soup. 


Tablet  op  Emperor.    Two  pieces 

■ of  silk. 

Three  cups  of  wine.        Table  and 

stool  with 

Two  bowls  of  soup.  clothing. 


Reader's  table. 


Twenty-eight  dishes. 
Pig.  Cow.  Sheep. 

Silk. 
Candle.  Incense.  Candl? 


PRAYER  TO  ANCESTORS.  35 

The  dishes  are  the  same  as  those  used  in  the  sacrifices 
to  the  spirits  of  Heaven  and  Earth.  They  are  placed  before 
the  Emperor  and  Empress  in  common. 

Tliis  seems  to  show  that  the  exclusion  of  women  from 
the  social  meal  is  not  so  ancient  as  the  time  when  the 
sacrifices  were  instituted.  The  Emperor  and  Empress  can 
have  their  meals  together  when  dead,  though  they  may  not 
when  living. 

The  prayer  is  read  from  a  table  on  the  south-west,  chosen 
because  it  is  the  point  of  greatest  humility,  the  east  being 
the  position  of  honour. 

An  officer  reads  the  prayer  upon  his  knees,  in  the  name 
of  the  Emperor.  The  prayer  states  the  Emperor's  descent 
as  son,  grandson,  &c.,  as  the  case  may  be.  Then  follows 
his  proper  name,  which  is  not  permitted  to  be  written  or 
pronounced  by  any  of  his  subjects.  The  prayer  proceeds 
to  say  :  "  I  dare  announce  to  my  ancestor  that  I  have  with 
care,  on  this  first  month  of  spring  (or  any  other  of  the  four 
seasons),  provided  sacrificial  animals,  silk,  wine,  and  various 
dishes,  as  an  expression  of  my  unforgetting  thoughtfulness, 
and  humbly  beg  the  acceptance  of  the  offerings." 

The  prayer  contains  the  titles  of  all  the  deceased  em- 
perors and  empresses  prayed  to,  amounting  to  twelve  or 
twenty  words  in  each  instance. 

Six  poems  are  sung,  each  to  a  different  melody.  Some 
of  the  names  of  these  airs  are  the  same  as  those  used  at 
the  sacrifices  at  the  altar  of  Heaven.  Each  poem  has  eight 
lines  of  four  or  five  words  each,  except  the  first,  wliich  has 
twelve  lines.  Six  of  these  lines  have  rhymes.  Here  fol- 
lows a  specimen  :  "  Ah !  my  imperial  ancestors  have  been 
able  to  become  guests  with  supreme  heaven.  Their  meri- 
torious acts  in  war  and  peace  are  published  in  all  regions. 
I,  their  filial  descendant,  have  received  the  decree  of  hea- 
ven, and  my  thought  is  to  carry  out  the  aims  of  those  who 
preceded  me,  thus  ensuring  the  gift  of  long  prosperity  for 
thousands  and  tens  of  thousands  of  years."  This  is  sung 
when  the  Emperor  presents  the  silk. 


36  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

The  musicians  sing  in  the  Emperor's  name,  and  the  jDro- 
nouns  and  other  peculiar  terms  are  so  employed  that  if  he 
sang  them  he  could  use  them  as  they  are.  This  is  very 
manifest  in  the  following  poem : — 

"  The  \drtue  of  these  my  ancestors  has  opened  this 
celestial  succession.  I  dare  to  say  that  I,  their  child, 
enjoy  the  complete  result.  The  virtue  I  wish  to  make  a 
return  for  is  boundless  as  bright  heaven.  While  with 
sedulous  earnestness  I  make  this  third  presentation  of 
wine,  my  heart  rejoices." 

The  Emperor  must  not  call  himself  "  your  subject."  He 
must  say  "  your  filial  descendant,  the  Emperor." 

The  act  of  prostration  embraces  kneeling  three  times, 
and  knocking  the  head  nine  times.  The  same  is  done 
by  attendant  officers,  who  imitate  the  Emperor's  act. 
This  ceremony  is  performed  first  at  the  arrival  of  the 
spirit  from  the  shrine  in  which  ordinarily  it  remains. 

The  meat  of  blessing  and  cup  of  blessing  occurs  in  this 
sacrifice  as  in  that  at  the  altar  of  Heaven.  It  is,  as  there, 
not  used  except  when  the  Emperor  himself  performs  the 
ceremony. 

At  the  presentation  of  wine  an  officer  places  a  cup 
before  each  of  the  tablets  representing  the  ancestors,  male 
and  female,  of  the  Emperor. 

That  an  officer  should  read  the  Emperor's  prayer  for  him 
in  his  presence  is  peculiar,  for  in  the  service  at  the  altar 
of  Heaven  the  Emperor  reads  the  prayer  himself. 

After  the  prayer  the  Emperor  is  directed  to  knock  his 
head  three  times  against  the  ground,  which  he  does. 
Upon  receiving  the  cup  and  meat  of  blessing,  he  again 
performs  the  full  ceremony  of  prostrations  and  knockings, 
and  the  same  occurs  again  after  this  twice  more,  at  the 
removal  of  the  viands  from  the  tables,  and  before  his 
return  to  his  palace. 

This  ceremony  being  so  burdensome  as  to  entail  on  the 
Emperor  the  necessity  of  kneeling  sixteen  times,  and 
knocking  the  forehead  thirty-six  times  against  the  ground, 


SACRIFICES  TO  LAND  AND  GRAIN.  37 

is  an  indication  of  tlie  importance  attaclied  to  iilial  piety, 
and  to  the  cliaracter  of  the  Emperor  as  an  example  of 
\drtue  to  all  his  subjects. 

The  burning  of  the  prayer  and  silk  offered  to  the 
emperors  shows  that  they  and  the  empresses  are  classed 
among  the  spirits  that  belong  to  heaven,  and  not  to  those 
that  belong  to  earth.  This  is  important  in  connection 
with  the  text  in  the  book  of  poetry  where  the  soul  of  Wen- 
wang  is  said  to  move  up  and  down  in  the  presence  of 
Shang-te.  The  use  of  the  word  shcn,  "  spirit,"  in  the  name 
shen-cJwo,  for  "  tablet,"  and  in  the  phrase  ying-shcn,  "  meet- 
ing the  spirit,"  to  escort  it  from  its  shrine  to  the  place  of 
sacrifice,  implies  the  same  thing. 

At  the  new  year  a  sacrifice  is  offered  to  the  spirits  of 
those  ancestors,  male  and  female,  whose  tablets  are  in  the 
back  hall  of  the  Tai-meaou.  On  the  Empress's  birthday 
the  same  thing  takes  place. 

The  number  of  musicians  is  two-thirds  of  those  that 
perform  at  the  temple  of  Heaven. 

Another  ancestral  temple  of  the  emperors  is  within  the 
palace.  It  is  called  Feng-sien-tien,  and  is  in  the  eastern 
portion  of  the  palace.  Beside  this  there  is  tlie  temple 
at  the  tomb  of  each  emperor. 

A  very  important  branch  of  the  imperial  worship  is  the 
sacrifices  to  the  gods  of  land  and  grain.  The  altars  to  these 
spirits  are  on  the  right  hand  of  the  palace  gate.  Their 
position  corresponds  to  that  of  the  Temple  of  Ancestors. 

The  altar  of  the  spirit  of  land,  Shay,  consists  of  two 
terraces,  both  ascended  by  flights  of  three  steps.  The 
upper  terrace  is  covered  with  earth  of  five  colours.  Yellow 
occupies  the  middle,  blue  the  east,  red  the  south,  white 
the  west,  and  black  the  north. 

On  the  south-west  of  the  altar  is  a  spot  for  burying  the 
victims.  The  tablet  to  the  god  of  land.  Shay,  is  on  the 
terrace  on  the  east.  That  to  the  god  of  grain,  Tscih,  is  on 
the  west.  Both  face  north.  There  are  two  tablets  occu- 
pying   the  position  of  guests;    ITca-^oo,  called  Kow-lung. 


38  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

looks  west,  and  Hovj-fseih  east.  The  last  of  these  was 
superintendent  of  husbandry  to  the  Emperor  Yam;  the 
first  was  officer  of  Hwang-te.  They  represent,  it  may  be 
safely  said,  the  founders  or  chief  promoters  of  Chinese 
agriculture. 

The  worship  takes  place  in  the  middle  months  of  spring 
and  autumn,  and  on  occasion  of  important  events  when 
announcements  are  to  be  made  to  them. 

The  sacrifices  are  the  same  as  in  the  worship  of  ances- 
tors and  of  the  temple  of  Earth,  as  regards  the  twenty-eight 
dishes,  but  a  bullock,  pig,  and  sheep  are  all  offered,  and 
the  jade  and  silk  to  be  burnt  are  placed  beyond  the  three 
animals. 

This  account  of  imperial  worship  must  here  cease.  I 
will  add  one  remark.  Every  impartial  investigator  will 
probably  admit  that  the  ceremonies  and  ideas  of  the 
Chinese  sacrifices  link  them  with  Western  antiquity.  The 
inference  to  be  drawn  from  this  is,  that  the  Chinese  pri- 
meval religion  was  of  common  origin  with  the  religions  of 
the  West,  But  if  the  religion  was  one,  then  the  political 
ideas,  the  mental  habits,  the  sociology,  the  early  arts  and 
knowledge  of  nature,  should  have  been  of  common  origin 
also  with  those  of  the  West. 

The  argument  for  identity  of  race  thus  becomes  very 
strong,  and  is  supported  by  the  close  resemblance  of  a 
mass  of  common  linguistic  roots/  found  to  be  alike  in 
sound  and  sense. 

1  See  on  this  subject  Dr.  Schlescl's  "Ai-ya  Siniaca,"  aud  luy  "China'd 
Place  in  Philoloj-v," 


(39) 


CHAPTER    III. 

TEMPLES. 

The  most  conspicuous  buildings  in  a  Chinese  city  are  the 
yamuns  and  the  temples.  The  ofilcers  of  Government 
reside  and  transact  business  in  the  former,  and  they  are 
often  spacious  and  handsome.  The  temples  are  very 
numerous,  belonging  as  they  do  to  three  religions.  They 
are  of  all  sizes  and  descriptions.  One  of  those  best  worth 
examining  is  that  of  Confucius.  It  is  placed  in  a  large  area 
ornamented  with  trees  and  water;  in  close  connection 
with  it  are  the  Government  examination-hall,  the  temple 
containing  the  tablets  to  the  national  sages,  and  that  in 
which  tlie  distinguished  persons  of  the  city  are  comme- 
morated on  monumental  boards. 

The  hall  of  sages  contains  the  tablets  of  seventy-two 
persons  ranged  on  each  side  of  Confucius,  and  revered  as 
his  most  distinguished  followers.  On  the  tablets  are  their 
names  and  titles.  The  sages  before  the  time  of  Confucius 
are  not  represented  here,  the  temple  being  dedicated  spe- 
cially to  this  philosopher.  He  is  called  "  the  most  holy 
ancient  sage  Koong-foo-tsze."  By  the  Jesuits  this  word 
was  Latinised  into  Confucius.  On  the  entrance  gates 
there  are  inscriptions  such  as  "  The  teacher  and  example 
for  ten  thousand  generations,"  and  "  Equal  with  heaven 
and  earth." 

Sacrifices  to  Confucius  are  offered  at  the  vernal  and 
autumnal  equinoxes.  Oxen  and  sheep  are  slain,  and  the 
carcases,  denuded  of  the  skin,  are  placed  upon  stands  in 
front  of  his  tablet.     Tlie  mandarins  are  present  on  the 


40  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

occasion  at  three  o'clock  in  the  mornincf.  The  flesh  of  the 
ox  and  the  other  animals  is  afterwards  divided  amoncr  the 
resident  literati  who  may  desire  it,  and  eaten  by  them. 
The  character  of  the  temple  is  funereal.  After  entering 
the  gates,  the  visitor  passes  through  a  long  avenue  of 
cypresses  to  the  chief  hall,  and  the  tablets  and  the  mode 
of  placing  them  are  the  same  as  in  the  funereal  temples 
raised  to  deceased  ancestors.  No  image  is  placed  to  Con- 
fucius, except  very  rarely,  and  when  it  is  used,  it  is  merely 
as  a  statue  for  ornament,  not  as  an  idol  for  worship.  The 
tablet,  however,  is  worshipped.  It  is  called  "  the  place  of 
the  soul."  When  Confucius  is  worshipped,  prayers  are 
not  made  use  of;  the  worshipper  is  mute,  while  he  pro- 
strates himself  to  express  his  reverential  respect  for  the 
virtues  of  the  sage.  Those  who  have  rank  and  property 
in  China  join  with  the  learned  class  in  professing  to  de- 
spise all  religions  but  that  of  Confucius.  They  associate 
his  name  with  their  ancient  national  polity,  their  litera- 
ture, their  system  of  universal  morality,  and,  indeed,  with 
all  the  elements  of  their  civilisation.  So  great  and  good 
was  he,  that  they  regard  him  as  infallible.  Yet  he  him- 
self was  distinguished  for  humility,  and  would  never  have 
dreamed  of  claiming  infallibility;  nor  would  he  have 
wished  to  be  in  that  high  position  of  dignity  to  which  his 
followers  have  raised  him. 

Their  reverence  for  him  takes  the  place  of  a  religion. 
Children  are  taught  to  make  their  bow  to  Confucius  when 
they  enter  school ;  and  when,  years  after,  they  appear  in 
the  examination-hall  to  take  their  degrees,  they  repeat 
this  act  of  reverence.  They  do  not,  indeed,  suppose  him 
to  have  the  attributes  of  a  god,  but  they  pay  him  reli- 
gious respect,  as  the  embodiment  of  all  that  is  sacred 
and  good. 

Near  the  Confucian  temple  is  a  smaller  edifice  to  the 
memory  of  the  virtuous  women  of  the  district.  A  tablet 
is  placed  to  each,  and  incense  is  burnt  before  it  on  certain 
occasions.     The  temple  to  virtuous  women  is  of  much  less 


CONFUCIAN  TEMPLES.  41 

pretension  in  size  and  ornament  than  that  of  Confucius 
and  the  seventy-two  sages.  It  is  sometimes  erected  in 
other  localities.  We  saw  one  on  the  island  of  Tung-tinir, 
near  Soochow,  in  memory  of  the  women  of  that  island. 
It  was  on  high  ground,  in  a  heautiful  situation,  in  sight  of 
some  of  the  other  islands  that  stud  the  northern  part  of 
the  Tae-hoo  lake.  The  rock  on  which  it  stands  is  lime- 
stone, furnishing  excellent  materials  for  mason-work. 
Some  time  since  an  application  was  made  to  Government 
to  prohibit  quarrying  for  stone  at  this  spot,  as  disre- 
spectful to  the  temple.  The  request  was  granted.  We 
noticed  that  a  part  of  the  limestone  was  crowded  with 
fossil  shells. 

There  is  an  agricultural  temple  {tari)  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  every  Chinese  city.  In  it  is  a  tablet  to  Shin- 
nung,  the  fabulous  emperor  who  is  said  by  the  Chinese  to 
liave  taught  their  forefathers  agriculture.  There  is  another 
to  the  spirits  of  the  hills  and  rivers  and  those  that  preside 
over  grain.  The  officers  visit  this  temple  in  early  spring- 
to  sacrifice  before  these  tablets,  and  to  plough  a  small 
plot  of  adjoining  ground.  They  do  this  as  an  example  of 
industry  to  the  agricultural  population,  as  an  intimation 
that  the  labours  of  the  field  are  to  commence,  and  as  an 
appeal  to  the  divinities  that  watch  over  the  interests  of 
the  farmer  for  a  prosperous  year. 

The  prevailing  character  of  these  and  other  temples 
belonging  to  the  Confucian  religion  is  funereal.  They  are 
the  abodes  of  the  dead.  The  name  of  the  tablet,  Shin-wei 
or  Ling-wei,  "the  place  of  the  soul,"  denotes  that  the 
spirit  is  supposed  to  be  present  there. 

The  character  of  Buddhist  temples  is  different  from  this. 
They  are  not  for  the  dead,  but  for  the  living.  They  con- 
tain halls  where  images  are  placed  to  represent  the 
expositors  of  Buddhist  doctrine  addressing  an  auditory. 
Buddha,  who  is  styled  "  the  teacher  of  the  present  world," 
occupies  the  centre,  and  inferior  personages  are  placed  on 
his  right  and  left.     The  Buddhist  temple  is  a  residence  for 


42  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

monks  who  have  retired  from  the  world — a  monastery — 
as  well  as  an  assemblage  of  buildings  in  which  images 
are  grouped  to  be  worshipped  according  to  their  rank — a 
temple. 

A  funereal  temple,  such  as  that  of  Confucius,  or  of  the 
ancestors  of  a  family,  is  called  *' mmou"  while  Buddhist 
monasteries  or  temples  are  termed  "  sze!'  How  numerous 
buildings  of  both  kinds,  as  well  as  those  bearing  other 
names,  are  in  China,  every  one  who  has  travelled  there 
knows. 

I  have  in  my  recollection,  as  I  write,  a  town  with  a 
large  population  built  at  the  foot  of  a  hill  in  the  eastern 
sdk  region  of  Cliina.  The  hill,  formed  of  a  bright  red 
stone,  is  crowned  with  a  pagoda,  commanding  an  exten- 
sive view.  On  entering  the  adjoining  temple,  the  visitor 
passes  through  some  neatly-furnished  rooms,  in  which  he 
sees  a  series  of  Buddhist  idols  of  clay,  with  their  customary 
expression  of  benevolence  and  thoughtfulness.  Beyond 
them  is  a  fountain  dedicated  to  some  divinity,  and  a  cave 
where  images  of  the  Goddess  of  Mercy,  Kwan-yin  (the 
Kanon  of  the  Japanese),  and  of  her  two  attendants,  are 
seen  set  up  in  niches  in  the  rock.  At  one  end  of  the  town, 
in  the  plain  below,  is  a  ruinous  temple,  in  much  worse 
condition  than  its  fellow  upon  the  hill.  On  each  side  of 
Buddha  stands  a  row  of  clay  statues,  representing  tlie 
Devas  of  Hindu  mythology,  with  their  Sanscrit  names. 
Here  are  Brahma,  ludra,  Shakra,  and  other  divinities,  so 
well  known  in  the  land  which  boasts  its  300,000,000  of 
gods.  They  are  a  part  of  the  assembly  that  honours 
Buddha  by  reverent  attention  and  offerings  of  flowers. 

Near  Hoochow,  a  city  not  far  from  this  place,  I  visited 
some  large  monasteries,  embosomed  among  hills,  very  re- 
tired from  the  common  haunts  of  men,  and  fit  for  those 
who  love  rural  sights  and  sounds.  Here  are  quiet  cells 
where  he  who  wishes  to  live  in  undisturbed  solitude  may 
do  so.  On  one  of  these  hills,  that  of  the  White  Magpie, 
there  is  a  fine  view  of  Tae-hoo,  the  great  lake  of  Soochow, 


CONFUCIAN  TEMPLES.  43 

and  the  monastery  is  surrounded  with  groves  of  bamboo 
and  other  trees.  On  another,  the  landscape  embraces 
Hoochow  and  the  well-watered  plain  in  which  it  lies. 
The  view  extends  to  the  mountainous  region  where  the 
peaks  of  Teen-muh-shan  and  its  adjacent  hills  tower  up  to 
4000  or  5000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  To  such 
retreats  the  mandarin  wearied  with  public  business,  or  the 
shopkeeper  who  has  been  unsuccessful  in  trade,  will  some- 
times betake  himself  in  search  of  the  pleasures  of  solitude 
for  the  remainder  of  his  existence. 

There  are  wilder  recrions  than  this  to  the  south-west  of 
Ningpo,  which  have  become  the  favourite  abode  of  such 
refugees  from  the  disappointments  of  the  world.  Thou- 
sands of  Buddhist  monks  are  here  gathered  in  large  con- 
vents in  a  bleak  and  dreary  situation,  where  for  several 
miles  round  there  are  no  towns  or  villages.  Here,  among 
mountains  of  considerable  elevation,  a  few  shepherds'  cot- 
tages are  the  only  human  habitations,  except  the  abodes 
of  the  monks.  Many  of  these  ascetics,  wishing  to  carry 
their  self-denial  to  the  furthest  extent,  are  unwilling  to 
reside  in  the  monasteries,  where  there  would  be  in  the 
society  of  their  fellow-monks  some  compensation  for  the 
loss  of  worldly  enjoyment.  They  build  a  hut  of  reeds  and 
straw  in  the  hollows  of  the  mountain,  or  in  some  spot 
sheltered  by  groves  of  trees,  and  here  they  live  alone,  with 
no  companion  but  the  little  image  of  the  god  Buddha,  and 
no  employment  but  the  burning  of  incense  to  him  or 
chanting  prayers.  Their  food  is  brought  them  from  the 
neighbouring  monastery,  and  they  have  no  family  cares, 
and  no  need  to  seek  a  living  by  labour.  The  monotony  of 
their  existence  is  only  varied  by  an  occasional  visit  to 
their  brethren  who  live  in  the  monastery  which  supports 
them,  and  whose  rules  they  have  to  obey. 

I  went  many  years  ago  to  this  celebrated  place,  where 
Chinese  Buddhism  is  to  be  seen  in  its  glory,  and  where 
the  style  of  the  temples  and  the  mode  of  living  among  the 
monks  may  be  observed  to  the  best  advantage.     It  was 


44  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

tlie  iStli  of  April,  a  fine  time  of  year  for  visiting  tlie 
mountainous  regions  of  China,  that  we  found  ourselves,  a 
party  of  three,  crossing  a  beautiful  pass  on  the  way  to 
Teen-tae.  All  the  morning,  after  sleeping  in  a  quiet 
monastery — for  in  such  parts  of  China  monasteries  are  the 
only  inns — we  had  been  following  the  windings  of  a  noisy 
stream,  running  through  a  narrow  valley.  ISTow  and  then, 
as  we  turned  a  corner,  we  came  in  sight  of  a  pretty  cas- 
cade rushing  down  an  abrupt  face  of  rock.  More  than 
once  we  crossed  the  stream  on  a  bamboo  raft  instead  of  a 
ferryboat,  where  the  w^ater  was  too  deep  to  be  forded  by 
pedestrians,  and  yet  too  shallow  for  oars  or  sculls.  At 
last  we  began  to  ascend  the  pass.  All  around  were  hill- 
tops, six  or  eight  in  number,  their  sides  covered  with 
azaleas  in  full  bloom.  The  stream  far  below  had  an 
evident  partiality  for  the  same  winding  curve  which  is 
followed  by  the  Wye  near  Chepstow,  The  view  of  the 
neighbouring  hills  we  thought  extremely  beautiful,  but 
the  most  striking  effect  was  witnessed  by  us  on  reaching 
the  top  of  the  pass,  where  the  landscape  in  a  moment 
doubled  itself,  and  we  saw  the  upper  course  of  the  stream 
in  the  valley  in  the  direction  of  the  celebrated  Buddhist 
retreat,  to  reach  which  was  the  object  of  our  journey. 
We  thought  we  had  never  seen  such  a  profusion  of  flowers 
as  were  spread,  growing  wild,  on  each  side  of  our  path. 
This  pass  is  called  Chaou-yang-ling.  Lea^dng  it,  we  pro- 
ceeded for  another  day,  and  after  sleeping  at  a  wayside 
inn,  arrived  in  the  evening  at  a  monastery  in  the  dis- 
trict of  Teen-tae,  called  Tsing-leang-sze.  The  principal 
monk  was  very  polite,  gave  us  good  accommodation,  and 
passed  much  time  in  discussing  with  us  the  principles  of 
Buddhism. 

Beyond  this,  as  we  proceeded,  we  found  that  large 
monasteries  were  placed  at  about  five  miles  apart  all 
through  this  mountainous  tract  of  country,  which  is  other- 
wise inhabited  only  by  a  few  cottagers.  In  these  esta- 
blishments the  Oriental  monasticism  is  seen  surrounded 


TEEN-TAE.  45 

with  all  the  attractions  of  natural  scenery,  and  in  the 
temples  the  modes  of  conducting  service  may  be  witnessed 
in  the  most  complete  and  elaborate  form.  Near  one  of 
the  monasteries  is  a  fine  waterfall,  sixty  feet  in  height, 
surmounted  by  a  natural  rock  bridge.  It  is  fourteen  feet 
long  and  eight  inches  wide,  and  has  been  well  worn  by  the 
steps  of  passers-by,  who  go  across  it  to  worship  at  the 
shrine  placed  at  the  other  end  of  the  bridge.  It  is  in  the 
midst  of  a  richly-wooded  dell,  in  which  there  are  several 
temples.  The  priests  who  reside  in  them  say  that  they 
hear  at  early  morning,  in  the  adjoining  groves,  what  they 
call  the  Lohans  chanting  Buddhist  prayers,  but  they  never 
see  them.  In  the  shrine  at  the  end  of  the  bridge  are  five 
hundred  little  figures  cut  in  stone  to  represent  the  Lohans, or, 
as  they  are  termed  in  Sanscrit,  the  Arhans.  These  figures 
are  so  small  that  they  do  not  look  more  than  half  an  inch 
in  thickness.  We  passed  the  night  at  Hwa-ting-sze,  a 
monastery  3000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It  con- 
sisted of  an  extensive  range  of  buildings  thatched  with 
straw,  a  rare  thing  to  see  in  China.  The  principal  hall 
has  in  it  nearly  the  same  images  in  all  these  monasteries. 
Buddha  sits  in  the  centre,  an  idol  of  clay,  gilt  over  its 
whole  surface,  and  seated  on  a  gigantic  lotus-flower.  On 
his  right  is  usually  Ananda,  and  on  his  left  Kashiapa,  two 
Indian  disciples  of  Buddha.  Sometimes  the  place  of  these 
two  disciples,  the  one  the  writer  of  the  sacred  books  of 
the  religion,  and  the  other  the  keeper  of  its  esoteric  tradi- 
tions, is  occupied  by  two  other  representations  of  Buddha, 
namely,  Buddha  past  and  Buddha  future. 

At  Koh-tsing-sze,  a  very  old  monastery,  lately  rebuilt 
at  great  expense,  we  found  that  there  were  two  hundred  resi- 
dent priests.  We  saw  there  ten  priests  shut  up  together  in  a 
hall  dedicated  to  the  Buddha  of  the  western  heaven.  They 
were  obliged  by  vow  to  remain  there  for  three  years, 
keeping  up  their  melancholy  chant  all  day  and  all  night. 
While  some  are  sleeping  the  rest  continue  their  mono- 


46  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

tonous  chant.  "We  went  in  among  them  and  gave  them 
some  hooks,  which  they  received  with  strong  demonstra- 
tions of  pleasure. 

In  each  of  the  monasteries  is  a  large  hall  dedicated  to 
the  five  hundred  Lohans,  supernatural  beings,  Avho  are 
supposed  to  make  Teen-tae  their  chief  place  of  abode. 
These  halls,  built  to  accommodate  five  hundred  life-size 
statues,  are  necessarily  large.  On  each  side  of  the  gate- 
way of  a  Buddhist  temple  is  a  tower,  the  one  for  a  bell 
and  the  other  for  a  gong,  which  are  struck  on  festival  days, 
on  the  arrival  of  visitors,  and  in  services  for  the  dead. 

In  the  vicinity  of  the  Koh-tsing  monastery  is  a  nine- 
storied  pagoda,  of  great  antiquity.  The  pagoda  is  a  very 
frequent  appurtenance  of  Buddhist  temples.  Its  object 
was  originally  to  form  a  tomb  for  deceased  Buddhist 
priests,  or  to  be  a  repository  for  relics  of  Buddha  and 
other  venerated  personages.  They  are  now  employed  in 
China  as  erections  in  honour  of  Buddha,  and  fijr  purposes 
of  geomancy.  They  are  supposed  to  ensure  prosperity  to 
the  neighbourhoods  in  which  they  stand.  An  outside 
gallery  is  usually  carried  round  each  story,  and  to  its  roof 
is  attached  a  circle  of  small  bells,  which  are  rung  by  the 
wind.  When  the  wind  rises  and  the  tinkling  of  the  bells 
is  heard,  the  priests  say  that  it  is  the  tribute  of  praise  to 
Buddha  from  inanimate  nature. 

In  a  complete  Buddhist  monastery,  beside  halls  for 
images  of  various  divinities,  there  are  apartments  for  the 
abbot  and  monks,  a  large  dining-hall,  a  library,  reception 
rooms  for  visitors,  and  out-buildings  for  the  culinary 
department. 

On  entering  the  principal  gate,  the  visitor  first  arrives 
at  the  chapel  or  hall  of  the  gods  (in  Chinese,  Ucn)  who  are 
subordinate  to  Buddha,  and  are  represented  as  guarding 
the  doorway  to  the  abode  of  the  great  hero,  or  teacher  of 
gods  and  men,  as  he  is  styled. 

Passing  this,  there  will  be  seen,  not  seldom,  an  imperial 
stone  monument,  bearing  an  inscription,  and  protected  by 


CAUSES  OF  ASCETICISM.  47 

a  roof  on  pillars ;  and  immediately  behind  it  is  the  great 
haU  of  Buddha. 

The  pagoda  at  Koh-tsing  is  more  than  a  thousand  years 
old,  and  the  traditions  of  the  monastery  are  equally 
ancient.  During  so  many  generations  as  have  passed 
from  the  time  of  its  foundation  to  the  present  day,  there 
have  arisen  not  a  few  legends  of  hermits  and  Lohans  con- 
necting themselves  with  the  pagoda  and  monastery,  and 
either  residing  in  the  woods  and  caves  of  the  surrounding 
hills,  or  making  transient  visits  to  them.  This  is  true 
indeed  of  all  the  Teen-tae  region,  and  the  tombs  and 
various  relics  of  many  celebrated  Chinese  Buddhists  are 
preserved  there, with  care,  and  are  visited  with  great 
interest  by  travellers. 

As  Ave  bade  adieu  to  Koh-tsing  and  turned  our  steps 
towards  the  plain,  we  felt  that  we  were  leaving  behind  us 
a  remarkable  region.  Among  these  hills,  all  of  them  high, 
and  one  of  them  reaching  an  elevation  of  4500  feet,  several 
thousands  of  monks  and  hermits  are  congregated.  We 
thouQ-ht  of  Mount  Sinai  and  the  numerous  societies  of 
Christian  monks  that  formerly  retreated  there  from  the 
Syrian  and  Egyptian  cities,  and  who  left  as  their  memorial 
the  inscriptions  that  have  recently  become  so  famous. 
A¥e  tried  to  gather  from  the  comparison  of  Eastern  and 
Western  monkery  some  light  on  the  philosophy  of  asceti- 
cism. On  descending  into  the  plain,  we  were  reminded 
tliat  we  were  in  the  native  land  of  the  mulberry-tree  and 
the  silkworm.  The  leaves  were  being  gathered  by  women 
and  chddren  for  the  Paou-paou,  "  the  precious  ones,"  as 
the  worms  are  affectionately  termed  by  the  country  people. 
Coming  amongst  a  dense  population,  and  noticiug  the 
marks  everywhere  visible  of  a  thriving  industry,  we  felt 
inclined  to  wonder  why  so  many  of  the  Chinese  should 
prefer  the  secluded  life  of  a  mountain  hermitage  or  monas- 
tery to  the  pleasures  and  activities  of  society.  Besides  the 
other  reasons  that  may  lead  men  to  prefer  a  monastery 
among  the  mountains  for  their  home,  there  must  be  some- 


48  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

times  a  feeling  of  sincere  faith  in  the  religious  opinions 
that  they  have  adopted,  and  a  longing  of  the  heart  after 
something  that  cannot  be  obtained  except  in  religious 
meditation. 

It  is  time  to  introduce  the  reader  to  another  class  of 
temples — those  of  the  Taouist  religion.  Some  of  them  are 
called  Kung,  'palace ;  and  the  endeavour  is  made  in  these 
to  represent  the  gods  of  the  religion  in  their  celestial 
abodes,  seated  on  their  thrones  in  their  palaces,  either 
administering  justice  or  giving  instruction. 

In  the  larger  Taouist  temples,  often  called  Kwan,  a 
greater  nimiber  of  divinities  is  found  in  the  various  halls 
and  side  apartments  of  the  building.  The  sages  noted  in 
the  history  of  the  Taouist  sect,  the  gods  of  the  various 
heavens  spoken  of  in  its  books,  the  star  deities,  and  the 
cyclic  gods,  who  preside  over  the  years  of  the  national 
sexagenary  cycle,  have  images  to  represent  them  according 
to  their  ranks. 

Besides  these  edifices  there  are  temples  to  the  State 
gods,  the  god  of  war,  and  the  protectors  of  cities  and  towns. 
They  are  called  Meaou,  their  character  being  Like  that  of 
the  above-mentioned  temples  of  the  Confucian  sect.  They 
are  intended  for  honour  to  the  dead,  and  the  deceased 
heroes  and  statesmen  to  whom  they  are  dedicated  are  all 
chosen  by  the  Government  to  their  places  in  the  national 
pantheon.  Those  who  hold  official  positions  in  any  city 
visit  these  temples  on  certain  public  occasions,  though  it  is 
not  always  with  a  friendly  intention  that  they  thus  give 
their  countenance  to  the  sect  of  Taou. 

Let  the  reader  imagine  himself,  on  the  morning  of  the 
new  or  full  moon,  wending  his  way  to  the  temple  dedi- 
cated to  the  patron  god  of  a  Chinese  city,  the  Ching-hivang- 
meaou.  If  early  enough,  he  will  have  the  opportunity  of 
witnessing  an  interesting  ceremony.  The  mandarins  of 
the  city  are  there  to  listen  to  the  reading  of  one  of  the 
imperial  lectures  addressed  to  the  working  classes  on  their 
special  duties.     There  are  sixteen  of  these  lectures.     In 


LECTURES  A  GA  INST  I  DO  LA  TR  V.  49 

them  the  Emperor  speaks  to  the  people  as  a  father  to  his 
children : — "  You  ploughmen,  spinners,  and  cultivators  of 
the  mulberry-tree,  should  be  very  diligent  in  prosecuting 
your  respective  callings.  For  what  is  the  country  to  do  for 
food  and  clothing  unless  you  are  so  ? "  It  was  the  Em- 
peror Kanghe — "  the  great  Kanghe,"  as  he  is  justly  called 
by  the  Jesuits  in  their  letters — who  instituted  this  custom, 
which  was  first  put  in  practice  in  the  reign  of  his  son, 
early  in  the  eighteenth  century.  In  one  of  the  lectures,  to 
the  public  reading  of  which  by  the  town-clerk  the  officers 
of  Government  and  a  small  audience  listen  with  respect,  an 
attack  is  made  on  the  idolatrous  religions  of  the  country. 
The  people  are  warned  that  they  should  not  frequent  the 
Buddhist  and  Taouist  temples,  nor  take  part  in  the  idola- 
trous village  festivals  held  on  certain  days.  The  imperial 
censor  calls  the  Buddhist  priests  the  drones  of  the  com- 
munity, creatures  like  moths  and  other  mischievous  in- 
sects, that  thrive  on  the  gatherings  of  others,  while  they  do 
no  honest  work  themselves.  When  he  has  finished  his 
remarks  on  these  two  heterodox  religions,  the  Emperor 
proceeds  to  criticise  certain  other  sects.  Among  them,  he 
says,  is  the  Tecn-choo-keaou  (Ptoman  Catholic  Christianity). 
"  That,"  he  says,  "  is  the  religion  of  Western  men.  Now 
these  men  from  the  West  are  clever  in  the  mathematical 
sciences,  and  on  this  account  they  are  employed  in  the 
astronomical  tribunal  to  calculate  eclipses  and  the  courses 
of  the  heavenly  bodies.  But  as  to  their  religion,  it  is  not 
accordant  with  the  orthodox  doctrine.  You  people  should 
not  by  any  means  believe  in  it." 


10  j5 


(  5o) 


CHAPTER    IV. 

CONFLICT  OF   RELIGIOUS   PARTIES   IN   CHINA. 


The  existence  of  three  national  religions  in  China  has  occa- 
sioned a  perpetual  conflict  of  religious  opinions  among  the 
people  of  that  country.  Great  diversities  of  sentiment  are 
found  there  upon  religious  subjects.  Between  the  literary 
class,  the  followers  of  Confucius,  and  the  multitude,  the 
adherents  of  Buddha  and  Taou,  there  has  always  been  a 
w^ant  of  cohesion.  The  former  feel  no  little  pride  in  assert- 
ing that  they  never  worship  images.  The  latter  defend 
them  as  a  useful  symbolism.  Fortunately  for  the  perman- 
ence of  the  Confucian  system,  it  has  always  had  the  balance 
of  intellectual  and  political  influence  on  its  side.  Tlie  best 
writers  have  supported  it  in  books  and  condemned  the 
other  systems,  while  the  Government  has  often  persecuted 
the  Buddhists  and  Taouists,  and  even  when  its  patronage 
has  been  extended  to  them,  its  approval  was  given  because 
it  thought  that  their  doctrines  agreed  with  those  of  the 
great  national  sage. 

An  example  was  given  in  the  preceding  chapter  of  the 
protests  constantly  repeated  on  behalf  of  the  orthodox 
Confucian  government  of  China  against  the  Buddhist  and 
Taouist  religions,  and  also  against  Christianity.  For  some 
centuries,  however,  the  dominant  party  has  ceased  to  per- 
secute the  other  two  national  religioDs.  It  has  fallen  into 
the  habit  of  toleration,  and  contented  itself  with  condem- 
natory protests  on  public  occasions.  Catholic  Christianity 
was  new,  and  it  has  been  several  times  severely  persecuted 
by  the  rulers  of  the  present  dynasty.  But  the  state  of 
public  relations  between  Christian  nations  and  China  has 


THE  LITERATI  AND  CHRISTIANITY.  51 

now  changed.  After  1843,  wlien  foreigners  went  to 
Shanghai  to  reside,  the  town-clerk  quietly  omitted  the 
passage  referring  to  Christianity,  when  reciting  in  conrse 
the  fortnightly  lectures,  and  he  was  not  called  to  account 
by  his  superiors  for  this  polite  concession  to  the  feelings  of 
the  newly-arrived  residents,  so  reluctantly  admitted  to  the 
"central  flowery  land." 

When  the  graduates  of  a  province,  or  one  of  its  sub- 
divisions, meet  for  examination  and  to  receive  degrees  and 
other  honours  from  the  imperial  examiners,  copies  of  the 
sixteen  lectures,  known  as  the  Sacred  Edict,  are  frequently 
distributed  among  them.  Tliis  is  one  of  many  modes  by 
which  efforts  are  made,  not  only  for  the  encouragement 
of  virtuous  industry  and  moral  conduct  among  the  people, 
but  to  keep  up  the  old  hostile  attitude  of  the  orthodox 
religion,  that  of  the  Government  and  the  scholars,  against 
other  systems. 

Some  examples  will  now  be  given  of  the  feelings  that 
the  scholars  have  as  individuals  respecting  the  worship  of 
the  popular  divinities,  the  clay  gods,  and  high-roofed 
temples,  blackened  with  incense- smoke,  that  they  see 
round  their  homes.  I  know  a  man  of  fine  intellect  who 
looks  with  contempt  on  idolatry.  While  the  mass  of  his 
fellow-townsmen  are  willing  worshippers  of  idols  such  as 
those  described,  a  few  like  him  will  be  found  in  every 
Chinese  city  fully  sensible  to  the  degradation  of  idolatry. 
I  remember,  on  a  bright  starlight"  Sabbath  evening,  holding 
a  lengthened  conversation  with  him  on  the  character  and 
claims  of  Christianity.  Possessed  of  clear  reasoning 
powers,  and  naturally  fond  of  scientific  inquiries,  he  felt  no 
doubt  or  difficulty  respecting  the  existence  and  character 
of  God.  He  freely  admitted  that  the  principal  doctrines 
of  Christianity  are  so  evident  and  just,  that  all  ought  to 
believe  them,  from  the  character  of  his  mind  he  was 
prepared  to  accede  at  once  to  everytliing  shown  to  be 
reasonable.  But  those  parts  of  Christianity  which  appeal 
to  a  heaven-born  faith  in  the  heart,  rather  than  to  the 


52  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

reasoning  faculties,  these  were  a  stumbling-block  to  him. 
He  said,  for  example,  that  the  doctrine  of  universal  de- 
pravity is  nothing  different  from  the  Chinese  dogma  on 
the  same  subject.  Many  philosophers  of  his  nation,  he 
contended,  had  held  that  in  addition  to  the  good  element 
in  human  nature  (conscience,  or  the  moral  sense)  there  was 
a  gross  principle,  evil  in  its  influence,  residing  in  the 
domain  of  the  passions  and  operating  through  them.  This 
germ  of  evil  is  not  from  heaven,  but  springs  up  of  its 
own  accord,  in  consequence  of  the  soul's  attachment  to 
matter,  and  grows  side  by  side  with  the  knowledge  of  good 
and  evil  which  is  bestowed  by  Heaven.  So  also  he  did  not 
oppose  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity ;  but  when  miracles  and 
the  divinity  of  Christ  were  spoken  of,  he  was  reluctant  to 
accept  them.  They  appeared  to  him  as  things  hard  to  be 
understood.  But  whatever  his  objections  to  the  religion 
of  Jesus  Christ,  he  preferred  it  much  to  the  systems  of 
idolatry  prevailing  in  his  own  country.  He  did  so  at  least 
theoretically,  but  his  want  of  faith  in  idolatry  did  not  pre- 
vent him  from  giving  his  donation,  when  asked,  towards 
the  expense  of  maintaining  worship  in  a  Buddhist  mon- 
astery. 

Another  instance  of  conflict  in  matters  of  opinion  is 
found  in  the  method  of  criticising  the  sacred  books  recently 
introduced  within  the  Confucian  school.  Previous  to  the 
present  dynasty,  an  old-fashioned  mediaeval  philosophy 
had  ruled  the  minds  of  the  literary  class  with  a  sway 
almost  as  powerful  as  that  of  Aristotle  over  the  schoolmen, 
Choo-foo-tsze  was  the  Coryphaeus  of  this  philosophy.  One 
of  its  tendencies  was  atheistic ;  it  denied  the  personality 
of  God,  and  held  that  the  Shang-te  of  the  classics — the 
supreme  ruler,  as  revered  in  the  ancient  Chinese  mono- 
theism— is  nothing  but  a  principle.  This  principle,  called 
Le  (reaso7i),  underlies  all  existences.  All  things  are  the 
manifestations  of  it.  Sometimes  it  is  spoken  of  as  a  law  of 
a  moral  or  intellectual  kind  pervading  the  world.  At 
other  times  it  is  nothing  but  a  very  fine  material  essence. 


CRITICAL  INTERPRETATION.  53 

This  was  the  conception  to  which  the  idea  of  God  was 
reduced  by  the  middle-age  Chinese  philosophers,  about  the 
time  of  the  European  schoohnen.  In  their  hands  Provi- 
dence is  nothing  but  the  spontaneous  action  of  a  law,  and 
creation  nothing  but  the  self-originated  beginning  of  such 
action.  This  clearly  is  atheism.  Eecent  Chinese  authors 
have  felt  that  such  a  system  was  unsatisfactory,  and  they 
have  returned  to  an  older  one,  which  regarded  the  person- 
ality of  God  as  a  fundamental  point ;  and  though  it  had  no 
very  distinct  view  on  the  subject  of  creation,  made  such 
statements  in  regard  to  the  providence  of  God,  as  to  show 
that  the  early  Chinese  had  conceptions  of  the  Divine 
Being  far  in  advance  of  most  pagan  nations.  Modern 
Chinese  writers,  when  speaking  on  the  question.  Whether 
the  God  of  the  classics  is  a  personal  being,  or  a  principle, 
ask : — "  Can  a  principle  become  angry  ?  Can  a  principle  be 
said  to  approve  the  actions  of  men,  and  be  pleased  with 
the  oiferinos  of  men  ?  Yet  these  acts  are  ascribed  to  God 
in  the  classical  books.  God,  therefore,  cannot  be  a  prin- 
ciple, but  must  be  a  personal  being." 

This  new  criticism  on  the  interpretations  of  the  school 
of  Choo-foo-tsze  was  exceedingly  well  timed,  for  the  influ- 
ence of  that  school  had  been  such  that  not  a  few  native 
scholars  might  be  properly  denominated  atheists  or  pan- 
theists. A  moderately  well-read  Chinese,  who  has  not 
imbibed  the  spirit  of  this  new  school,  will  say  to  the  mis- 
sionary of  our  purer  faith  : — "  We  are  worshippers  of  God 
too.  He  is  present  in  all  nature.  The  world  is  God.  When 
we  inquire  into  science,  celestial  or  terrestrial,  we  honour 
God."  Identifying  nature  with  God,  such  men  find  no 
difficulty  in  reconciling  Christian  views  of  the  Deity  with 
the  cold  and  cheerless  abstractions  of  such  a  philosophy  as 
that  of  Choo-foo-tsze. 

Sufficient  attention  has  not  yet  been  given  to  the  re- 
markable change  that  has  occurred  in  Chinese  authorship 
during  the  last  two  centuries  as  bearing  on  religion  and 
philosophy.     Authors  on  China  have  limited  themselves 


54  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

too  much  to  the  older  system,  which  has  had  its  day,  and 
has  now  given  place  to  more  rational  opinions,  at  least 
among  the  better  instructed  class  of  Chinese  readers.  At 
the  same  time,  it  must  be  allowed  that  the  views  they 
repudiate  still  hold  their  ground  with  the  mass  of  so-called 
Confucianists ;  for  in  that  country  the  opinions  of  a  new 
school  can  only  become  universally  known  after  a  long 
period.  The  ms  inerticv  of  Chinese  institutions  renders 
change  difficult.  In  course  of  time  probably  there  will  be 
a  new  system  inaugurated  in  the  Government  examina- 
tions, and  the  sentiments  which  the  influential  writers  of 
the  present  day  call  in  question  will  perhaps  be  publicly 
renounced.  The  multitude  will  wait  till  this  is  done  before 
taking  the  trouble  to  inform  themselves  on  the  particular 
opinions  of  their  best  tliinkers  and  authors,  much  more 
before  adopting  them. 


(  55  ) 


CHAPTER   V. 

HOW   THREE   RELIGIONS   BASED   ON    DIFFERENT 
PRINCIPLES   EXIST   IN   CHINA. 

The  susceptibility  of  the  Chinese  to  become  converts  to 
Christianity  cannot  be  held  doubtful,  if  their  past  and 
present  religious  history  be  well  considered.  The  study  of 
their  literature,  and  personal  observation  of  their  customs 
and  modes  of  thought,  lead  directly  to  this  conclusion. 

The  light  in  which  the  Chinese  too  often  appear  to  the 
foreign  observer  is  that  of  the  ludicrous  and  fantastical 
almost  exclusively.  Next  to  this,  they  are  usually  repre- 
sented as  avaricious,  conceited,  and  untruthful.  Writers 
like  M.  Hue  prefer  the  comic  to  the  real,  and  the  pleasure 
they  take  in  drawing  an  amusing  picture  prevents  their 
doing  justice  to  the  good  points  of  the  national  character 
they  endeavour  to  describe.  The  good-natured  sketches 
of  Mr.  Fortune,  and  the  philosophic  views  of  Mr.  Meadows, 
represent  the  country  and  its  people  much  more  correctly 
than  the  ovei'flowing  fun  and  vivacity  of  this  author  would 
allow  him  to  do.  The  writer  who  means  to  be  predomin- 
antly comic  will  not  give  a  fair  view  of  any  people  among 
whom  he  travels.  He  will  overlook  the  deeper  and  more 
influential  elements  of  character,  and  fix  his  eye  too  much 
on  the  effervescing  qualities. 

Cliina  presents  a  fine  field  for  observing  the  mutual 
infiuence  and  conflict  of  those  ideas  which  have  most  to  do 
with  the  formation  of  character — the  reliuious  and  the 
moral.  We  have  there  three  great  national  systems  exist- 
ing in  harmony.  Three  modes  of  worship,  and  three  philo- 
sophies underlying  them,  have  been  there  for  ages  inter- 


56  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

acting  on  each  other.  Sometimes  they  have  been  in 
conflict,  but  usually  they  have  preferred  a  state  of  peace. 
The  Chinese  would  rather  have  toleration  than  persecution. 
They  did  not  drive  out  the  intruding  religion  that  came  to 
them  from  India,  as  the  Japanese  did  Christianity  in  its 
Eoman  Catholic  form.  Nor  did  Confucianism  expel  the 
Taouist  religion,  as  the  Brahmans  did  Buddhism  from  the 
land  of  its  birth.  The  Chinese  quietly  adopted  all  these 
religions,  after  a  limited  period  of  persecution,  and  now 
they  exist  side  by  side  not  only  in  the  same  locality,  but, 
what  is  more  extraordinary,  in  the  belief  of  the  same 
individuals.  It  is  quite  a  common  thing  in  China  for  the 
same  person  to  conform  to  all  the  three  modes  of  worship. 
\  The  flexibility  is  very  convenient  to  the  governing  powers 
in  the  State.  Any  divinity  they  may  wish  to  have  wor- 
shipped by  the  common  people  will  be  admitted  at  once 
into  their  pantheon  without  difiiculty.  While  they  comply 
with  the  will  of  their  governors,  they  also  feel  superstitious 
reverence  for  the  new  god.  They  believe  that  the  Emperor 
has  the  power  of  appointing  the  souls  of  the  dead  to  posts 
of  authority  in  the  invisible  world,  just  as  he  does  in  the 
visible.  When  they  see  his  image  in  a  new  temple  in 
appropriate  costume,  seated  in  his  shrine  like  any  other 
god,  they  will  soon  learn  to  adore  him  as  willingly  as  any 
of  the  old  divinities  with  whose  names  they  have  been 
long  familiar. 

There  is  a  temple  in  a  retired  spot  in  the  city  of  Shang- 
hai, built  to  the  memory  of  a  Chinese  hero  who  died  in 
battle  in  the  first  English  war.  He  fell  at  the  capture  of 
Woosung  by  the  British  forces.  He  held  the  highest 
military  post  that  a  Chinese  can  hold,  that  of  Te-tae,  the  rank 
of  Tseang-keun  being  limited  to  the  Manchoos.  This  hero, 
Chin-te-tae,  appears  in  the  temple,  carved  in  wood,  the  size 
of  life,  and  the  likeness  is  said  to  be  very  good.  The  hon- 
ours of  deity  are  paid  to  him,  and  though  there  are  few  visi- 
tors to  the  temple  now,  doubtless  the  superstitious  faith  of 
the  inhabitants  in  this  new  divinity  assigned  to  them  by 


CO-EXISTENCE  OF  THREE  RELIGIONS.  57 

Government  authority,  will  increase  with  the  lapse  of  years, 
and  his  worshippers  will  become  more  numerous.  This  at 
least  is  the  common  order  of  things  in  China.  The  neigh- 
bours evidently  think  there  is  a  certain  sacredness  attach- 
ing to  this  new  temple.  It  is  the  spot  which  they  selected 
to  place  the  body  of  the  Shanghai  city  magistrate  who  was 
killed  at  the  capture  of  that  place  by  a  rebel  force  five 
years  ago.  After  the  re-entrance  of  the  Imperialists,  the 
coffin  of  the  slain  mandarin  was  publicly  exhibited  there 
for  some  days.  A  biography  of  him  was  written  by  a 
scholar  of  the  neighbourhood,  in  which  he  w^as  classed 
among  the  patriotic  and  the  loyal  who  had  died  in  the 
discharge  of  the  trust  committed  to  them  by  the  Emperor. 
The  best  reward  for  such  persons  is  considered  to  be  the 
bestowal  of  divine  titles  and  sacrifices  by  command  of  the 
Emperor. 

The  readiness  with  which  new  reKgious  ceremonies  are 
received  among  the  people  has  allowed  the  three  religions 
to  interact  very  extensively  on  each  other.  It  will  be 
worth  while  to  point  out  instances  of  this  interaction,  and 
also  to  show  how  they  co-exist  harmoniously.  This  will 
be  interesting  to  all  students  of  the  religions  of  the  world, 
as  well  as  to  those  who  have  at  heart  the  Christianisation 
of  the  whole  human  race.  China  is  the  only  instance  of  a 
country  where  three  powerful  religions  have  existed  to- 
gether for  ages  without  one  of  them  being  successful  in 
destroying  the  rest. 

The  remaining  religions  of  China  are  exclusive,  and 
those  who  belong  to  them  consider  it  their  duty  not  to 
conform  to  the  rites  of  other  systems.  Of  these,  the 
Mohammedans  are  most  numerous.  In  the  northern  pro- 
vinces it  is  said  that  they  often  compose  a  third  of  the 
population.  Though  the  Chinese  IMohammedans  are  pro- 
bably the  most  lax  of  all  believers  in  Islam,  they  keep  up 
among  themselves  a  spirit  of  resistance  to  idolatry,  refusing 
to  adore  any  but  Cldn-choo,  "  the  true  Lord."  They  did 
not  require  us  to  take  off  our  shoes  w^hen  we  entered  their 


58  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

mosques,  as  the  foreign  visitor  must  do  in  India  or  Ceylon, 
but  they  have  more  than  once  claimed  fraternity  with  us 
as  being  opposed,  like  them,  to  the  worship  of  images. 

The  Eoman  Catholic  converts  in  China  amount  to  nearly 
a  million;  a  large  number  in  itself,  but  small  when  com- 
pared with  the  remainder  of  the  population. 

Leaving  these  two  bodies  of  religionists  out  of  view  for 
the  present,  an  attempt  will  now  be  made  to  show  the 
mutual  influences  of  the  three  great  systems  that  may  be 
properly  called  national. 

The  religious  of  Confucius,  Buddha,  and  Taou  are  tridy 
national,  because  the  mass  of  the  people  believe  in  them 
all.  They  are  far  from  feeling  it  inconsistent  to  do  so. 
Pliilosophers  may  not  know  what  to  do  with  a  fact  like 
this ;  but  it  is  true  nevertheless.  Those  who  themselves 
have  a  devoted  love  of  truth,  and  feel  strong  convictions 
of  certain  things,  do  not  understand  how  any  one  should 
belong  to  three  religions  at  once.  Hence  some  writers 
have  parcelled  out  the  Chinese  among  these  systems, 
assigning  so  many  millions  to  one  and  so  many  to  another. 
In  estimating  the  number  of  Buddhists  in  the  world,  one 
hundred  and  eighty  millions  of  Chinamen  are  placed  by 
one  author  at  the  head  of  his  enumeration  of  nations.  He 
has  obtained  this  number  by  halving  the  whole  population; 
a  process  conveniently  short,  but  far  from  giving  a  true 
view  of  the  case.  If  it  serves  for  other  races  to  refer  every 
individual  belonging  to  them  to  some  one  religion,  it  will 
not  answer  for  China.  Some  other  mode  of  classification 
must  be  employed.  The  majority  of  the  inhabitants  in 
that  country  comply  with  the  worship  of  more  than  one 
religion,  believe  in  more  than  one  mythology  of  gods,  and 
contribute  to  the  support  of  more  than  one  priestliood. 

What  is  the  cause  of  this  indifCerence  ?     Why  do  they 
care  so  little  about  finding  out  what  is  the  truth  and  hold- 
ing to  it  ?     Several  answers  may  be  given  to  this  inquiry. 
A    They  are  superstitious,  but  wanting  in  conscientiousness. 
They  accept  legends  as  true  without  examining  whether 


THE  THREE  RELIGIONS  DEFINED.  59 

there  is  any  good  evidence  for  them  or  not.  They  care 
more  to  liave  divinities  that  seem  to  meet  their  wants,  and 
can  do  for  them  what  they  wish  to  be  done,  than  to  have 
truth  and  certainty  to  rest  upon.     This  is  one  answer. 

Another  circumstance  that  helps  to  explain  how  it  is 
that  the  Chinese  believe  in  three  religions  at  once  is,  that 
these  systems  are  supplementary  to  each  other. 

Confucianism  speaks  to  the  moral  nature.  It  discourses 
on  virtue  and  vice,  and  the  duty  of  compliance  with  law 
and  the  dictates  of  conscience.  Its  worship  rests  on  this 
basis.  The  religious  veneration  paid  to  ancestors — for 
that  is  the  worship  of  this  system — is  founded  on  the 
duty  of  filial  piety.  The  moral  sense  of  the  Chinese  is 
offended  if  they  are  caUed  on  to  resign  this  custom. 

Taouism  is  materialistic.  Its  notion  of  the  soul  is  of 
something  physical,  a  purer  form  of  matter.  The  soul  it 
supposes  to  gain  immortality  by  a  physical  discipline,  a 
sort  of  chemical  process,  which  transmutes  it  into  a  more 
ethereal  essence,  and  prepares  it  for  being  transferred  to 
the  regions  of  immortality.  The  gods  of  Taouism  are  also 
very  much  what  might  be  expected  in  a  system  which  has 
such  notions  as  these  of  the  soul.  It  looks  upon  the  stars 
as  divine.  It  deifies  hermits  and  physicians,  magicians 
and  seekers  after  the  philosopher's  stone  and  the  plant  of 
innnortality. 

Luddhism  is  different  from  both.  It  is  metaphysical. 
It  appeals  to  the  imagination,  and  deals  in  subtle  argu- 
ment. It  says  that  the  world  of  the  senses  is  altogether 
unreal,  and  upholds  this  proposition  by  the  most  elaborate 
proofs.  Its  gods  are  personified  ideas.  It  denies  matter 
entirely,  and  concerns  itself  only  with  ideas.  Most  of  the 
personages  adored  by  the  Buddhists  are  known  to  be  no- 
thing but  fictitious  personations  of  some  of  these  ideas.  The 
Buddhist  worship  is  not  reverence  paid  to  beings  believed 
to  be  actually  existing.  It  is  a  homage  rendered  to  ideas, 
and  it  is  only  supposed  to  be  reflex  in  its  effects.  Their 
worsliip  is  useful  as  a   discipline,   but   not   effectual   as 


/ 


6o  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

prayer.  The  Buddhist,  if  he  can  obtain  abstraction  of 
mind  from  the  world  in  any  other  mode,  need  not  pray  or 
worship  at  all. 

These  three  systems,  occupying  the  three  corners  of  a 
triangle — the  moral,  the  metaphysical,  and  the  material — - 
are  supplemental  to  each  other,  and  are  able  to  co-exist 
without  being  mutually  destructive.  They  rest  each  on  a 
basis  of  its  own,  and  address  themselves  each  to  different 
parts  of  man's  nature.  It  was  because  Confucianism 
"knew  God,  but  did  not  honour  Him  as  God,"  that  the 
way  was  left  open  for  a  polytheism  like  that  of  the  Budd- 
hists. In  the  old  books  of  China,  God  is  spoken  of  as  the 
Supreme  Euler.  He  is  represented  as  exercising  over 
y  mankind  an  infinitely  just  and  beneficent  providence. 
But  the  duty  of  prayer  is  not  enjoined.  No  worship  of 
God  by  the  people  is  permitted.  It  was  only  by  the 
Emperor  acting  vicariously  for  the  people  that  the  Deity 
was  adored  in  that  country.  The  system  of  Confucius 
wanting  this,  was  more  a  morality  than  a  religion. 

Buddhism  came  to  fill  this  vacancy.  Individual  faith 
in  God,  with  a  rational  mode  of  worship  to  accompany  it, 
could  not  be  a  result  of  the  religious  teaching  which  pre- 
ceded it  in  China,  nor  were  they  inculcated  by  it.  In 
Buddhism,  the  Chinese  found  objects  to  adore  of  mysteri- 
ous grandeur,  and  richly  endowed  with  the  attributes  of 
wisdom  and  benevolence.  The  appeal  thus  made  to  their 
religious  faith  was  strengthened  by  a  pompous  form  of 
worship.  Processions  and  the  ringing  of  bells,  fumes  of 
sweet-smelling  incense,  prayers,  chanting,  and  musical 
instruments,  were  their  aids  to  devotion.  ISTo  wonder  that 
these  additions  should  prove  welcome  to  the  religious 
susceptibilities  of  a  nation  which  had  hitherto  been  re- 
stricted within  the  bounds  of  a  system  almost  exclusively 
moral,  and  which  discouraged  the  worship  of  God  by  the 
mass  of  the  people. 

How  Taouism  meets  certain  other  wants  which  the 
other  two  systems  fail  to  gratify,  we  will  now  show  by  an 


TA  0  UIST  MEDIC  A  L  DIVINITIES.  6 1 

illustration : — It  was  a  cold  morning  in  January  when  a 
missionary  walked,  on  one  occasion,  to  a  temple  near  tlie 
west  gate  of  Sliangliai.  There  is  a  medical  divinity  much 
honoured  who  resides  in  this  temple,  to  heal,  as  his 
worshippers  think,  the  ailments  of  those  who  pray  to  him. 
The  Taouist  priest  in  charge  addressed  the  foreign  visitor 
with  a  somewhat  unexpected  exhortation  : — "  You  come  to 
our  country  giving  us  good  advice.  Now  let  me  address  a 
little  to  you.  Your  religion  does  not  meet  the  require- 
ments of  the  people.  When  they  worship,  they  wish  to 
know  whether  they  can  grow  rich,  and  recover  from 
disease;  hut,  in  the  case  of  believing  in  Jesus,  there  are 
no  benefits  of  this  kind  to  be  looked  for."  He  pointed  to 
the  little  image,  representing  some  physician  of  a  former 
dynasty,  sitting  in  its  shrine  in  a  dim  liglit,  just  visible 
through  the  opening  of  the  curtains.  "  See,"  said  he, 
"  here  is  the  god,  ready  to  tell  the  believing  devotee  what 
medicine  he  needs,  and  to  guarantee  its  healing  effect. 
Look  at  the  inscriptions  fixed  on  the  roof  above,  and  on 
each  side  of  the  shrine.  They  describe  his  marvel-working 
power."  He  was  asked  who  placed  those  tablets  there. 
"  They  are,"  he  replied,  "  the  offerings  of  persons  cured  by 
this  divinity.  In  the  Central  Kingdom,  the  setting  of  the 
tablets  in  the  temples  by  individuals  is  customary,  and 
they  are  intended  to  commemorate  benefits  received  from 
the  divinities  to  whom  they  are  dedicated."  A  visitor 
from  a  village  in  the  country,  at  a  distance  of  some  miles, 
now  appeared,  and  went  through  the  usual  ceremonies. 
He  was  asked,  "  Why  do  you  not  consult  a  physician  ? 
This  idol  is  dead  wood.  It  cannot  see  or  hear.  Why 
apply  to  it?"  The  devotee  answered  with  great  simpli- 
city, "  I  do  not  know  what  my  disease  is,  how  then  can  I 
apply  to  a  physician?  It  is  on  this  account  that  I  ask  the 
god.  He  will  heal  me.  I  have  come  a  long  way  on  pur- 
pose. His  fame  is  very  widely  spread."  He  was  again 
asked,  "Will  you  not  go  to  the  foreign  free  hospital?" 
He  answered,  "  It  is  not  the  right  time  of  day,  and  besides. 


62  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

I  like  to  come  here;  and  why  should  I  not?"  He  was 
asked  again,  "  Do  you  know  that  this  burning  of  incense 
and  seeking  for  oracular  information  at  an  idol's  shrine  is 
displeasing  to  God  ?  It  is  as  unwise,  therefore,  as  it  is 
unreasonable,  to  apply  to  this  god  to  tell  you  what  medi- 
cine you  should  use."  At  this  point  the  Taouist  priest 
came  to  the  defence  of  his  system.  "  You  believe  in  Jesus. 
We  believe  in  our  gods.  Eeligions  differ  according  to 
place,  and  every  country  has  its  own  divinities.  We  have 
Kwan-kung,  for  example,  the  god  of  war,  and  other  divini- 
ties, holding  the  same  place  among  us  that  Jesus  does 
among  you."  He  was  asked,  "  How  can  these  supposed 
gods  benefit  you  ?  They  are  but  the  imaginary  representa- 
tives of  men  belonging  to  your  nation  who  long  ago  died.'"' 
The  Taouist  asked  in  reply,  "Is  it  not  the  same  with 
Jesus  ?  He  also  is  long  since  dead.  Wliat  benefit  do  you 
expect  from  Him  ? "  He  was  then  told,  "  We  do  not  make 
an  image  of  Him,  place  it  in  a  shrine,  and  cast  lots  before 
it,  expecting  to  learn  by  so  doing  how  a  disease  is  to  be 
cured.  The  parallel  is  not  accurate.  The  benefit  we 
expect  from  Him  is,  that  He  wdll  help  us  in  becoming 
virtuous,  and  in  attaining  a  happy  future  life.  The  object 
of  our  religious  books  is  to  free  us  from  sin,  and  Jesus, 
who  still  lives  in  heaven,  is  able  to  secure  us  this."  Tlie 
reference  to  books  led  him  to  remark,  "  We  have  our  books, 
too,  to  exhort  men  to  virtue."  He  took  up  a  copy  of  a 
well-known  work,  often  distributed  gratuitously  in  China 
by  those  who  devote  money  to  the  printing  and  circulation 
of  religious  tracts  among  their  countrymen.  "  This,"  he 
said,  "is  the  Kan-ying-peen  (Book  of  Eetribution) ;  all 
that  it  contains  is  intended  to  make  men  better.  It 
promises  long  life  to  the  good,  and  all  kinds  of  calamities 
to  the  wicked.  Our  object  is  the  same  as  yours,  to  make 
men  good."  He  was  reminded  that,  according  to  the 
doctrine  of  this  book,  happiness  and  misery  were  the 
rewards  of  virtue  and  vice,  and  that  this  did  not  agree 
with  the  system  of  divination  on  which  his  temple  de- 


CHARACTER  OF  TAOUISM.  63 

pended  for  its  support;  and  was  asked  why  he  encouraj^'ed 
those  who  frequented  it  to  expect  good  from  the  throwing 
of  sticks  on  the  floor,  and  the  shaking  of  lots  together  in  a 
wooden  cup,  if  good  and  ill  fortune  were  awarded  to  men 
by  Heaven  only  according  to  character.  To  this  the  priest 
of  Taou  replied,  as  he  sat  surrounded  by  his  boxes  of 
medicines,  arranged  in  pigeon-holes,  with  his  recipe  book 
on  the  table  before  him,  from  wdiich  he  selected  the  appro- 
priate nostrum  under  the  guidance  of  the  oracle,  "  If  tlie 
person  who  comes  to  worship  is  wicked  at  heart,  he  will 
not  be  heard,  the  oracle  will  fail."  "  But,"  it  was  remarked, 
"  if  he  be  only  virtuous,  he  need  not  come  here  at  all.  The 
great  thing  is  to  be  good." 

It  is  curious  to  notice  how  the  upholders  of  the  most 
degrading  superstitions  will  invariably  maintain  that  they 
are  auxiliary  to  virtue,  and  that  they  rest  upon  the  sound- 
est principles  of  morality.  Taouism,  as  it  is  popularly 
beheved,  is  one  of  the  most  abject  of  all  the  religions  that 
the  world  has  known.  There  is  much  in  it  which  is  so 
wretchedly  mean,  that  the  examination  of  it  is  quite  dis- 
spiriting,  and  the  reflection  often  occurs — Can  the  soul  of 
man  sink  so  low  as  this  ?  This  poor  Taouist  doctor  gained 
his  living  by  a  trade  no  more  respectable  than  that  of  a 
gipsy  fortune-teller.  The  history  of  his  sect  is  that  of  a 
succession  of  necromancers  who  could  call  up  spirits  at 
their  will,  of  dreamers  who  expected  to  discover  the  art  of 
transmuting  all  metals  into  gold,  and  of  a  few  philosophers 
who,  though  their  aspirations  were  a  little  higher,  have 
failed  to  lend  any  air  of  dignity  to  a  system  hopelessly 
mean.  Yet  this  man  contended,  as  the  conversation  was 
continued,  that  believers  in  his  religion  strove  after  virtue. 
It  was  by  virtue,  he  said,  that  they  looked  for  immortality. 
The  genii  who  reside  in  forests  and  mountains,  who  have 
left  the  haunts  of  men  for  ever,  and  escaped  the  necessity  of 
dying,  have  arrived  at  this  good  fortune  by  the  force  of  their 
goodness.  He  confessed,  however,  that  in  modern  times 
there  are  none  so  good  as  to  become  immortal  in  this  way. 


64  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

The  missionary  reminded  liim  that  if  he  really  wished 
men  to  be  virtuous,  some  better  method  to  make  them  so 
might  be  found  than  the  keeping  open  of  a  temple  like  that. 
The  idols  with  their  gay  ornaments,  the  hanging  lanterns, 
the  burning  of  candles  and  sandal-wood,  and  the  apparatus 
for  divination,  would  not  promote  the  virtue  of  the  com- 
munity. They  are  all  the  work  of  human  hands.  There 
is  nothing  divine  in  them.  "  Such  is  our  custom,"  observed 
the  villager.  "Customs  differ  according  to  place."  The 
priest  felt  a  little  nettled,  and  remarked,  "  If  you  were  to 
fall  into  a  river,  Jesus  would  save  you  from  drowning,  I 
sup]3ose.  He  would  come  and  draw  you  out  of  the  water. 
You  honour  Jesus,  and  it  is  very  well  for  you  to  do  so. 
But  He  does  not  preside  over  China.  He  is  not  the  God 
of  our  country,  and  it  would  be  of  no  use  for  us  to  pray  to 
Him."  Of  course  neither  of  these  two  men  were  prepared 
to  admit  what  they  were  then  told,  that  Jesus  is  the  true 
God,  and  that  in  Him  is  eternal  life. 

This  incident  shows  how  the  Taouist  system  works 
among  the  Chinese.  Its  appeal  is  made  to  the  lower 
wants  of  their  nature.  It  invents  divinities  to  promote 
the  physical  weU-being  of  the  people.  The  gods  of  riches, 
of  longevity,  of  war,  and  of  particular  diseases,  aU  belong 
to  this  religion.  Such  a  system  could  not  fail  to  be 
popular  among  all  those  whose  spiritual  nature  has  not 
been  wakened  into  activity.  The  number  of  such  persons 
in  China  is  overwhelmingly  vast.  Their  appetites  are  gross, 
and  Taouism  has  supplied  to  them  a  suitable  pabulum. 

We  have  already  assigned  two  reasons  for  the  existence, 
side  by  side,  of  three  national  religions  in  China.  The 
first  was,  that  while  the  people  of  that  country  are  prone 
to  superstition,  they  neglect  to  inquire  into  evidence. 
They  have  no  literature  of  evidences  corresjDonding  to  our 
evidences  of  Christianity,  nor  have  they  formed  their 
notions  on  logic  into  a  science.  The  second  was,  that 
these  religions  addi-ess  themselves  particularly  to  different 
parts  of  human  nature.     We  shall  add  a  third.     These 


I  DO  LA  TR  V  UPHELD  BY  A  UTHORITY.  65 

three  systems  are  all  supported  by  the  weight  of  authority. 
Confucius  professed  to  tread  in  the  steps  of  the  ancient 
sages  of  his  nation.  It  is  a  favourite  proverb  among  the 
Chinese,  Kin  -puh  joo  koo,  "  the  moderns  are  not  comparable 
with  the  ancients."  Since  the  time  of  Confucius,  men  of 
mark  in  China  have  lent  their  influence  to  uphold  the 
same  system,  and  it  has  always  been  the  religion  of  the 
State.  But  while  the  influential  authors  and  the  emperors 
of  the  successive  dynasties  have  never  deserted  the  Con- 
fucian standard,  many  of  them  have  shown  attachment  to 
Buddhism.  Last  century  the  Emperor  Keen-lung  gave  the 
palace  of  his  grandfather  at  Hangchow  to  the  Buddhists  to 
be  a  monastery,  and  wrote  with  his  own  hand  an  inscrip- 
tion on  a  monumental  tablet  to  be  placed  on  its  roof  The 
literature  of  that  religion,  in  more  than  looo  volumes,  is 
published  by  Government  with  public  funds.  Numberless 
prefaces  to  Buddhist  works  have  been  written  by  emperors 
and  authors  of  great  repute.  The  influence  of  Buddhism 
is  discernible  in  the  productions  of  many  of  the  most 
influential  writers.  The  Buddhist  priesthood  has  been  and 
is  recognised  by  many  public  acts  of  the  Government. 
Buddhism  is  supported  as  the  national  religion  among  the 
Tibetans  and  Mongols,  and  large  establishments  of  Lamas 
belouQ-ing  to  these  nations  are  maintained  at  Pekino-  at  the 
imperial  expense. 

Taouism,  perhaps  more  than  Buddhism,  may  be  con- 
sidered a  State  religion.  All  the  State  gods,  such  as  the 
god  of  war,  Wen-chang  the  god  of  literature,  and  the  very 
numerous  patron  gods  of  cities  and  country  towns,  belong 
to  the  Taouist  religion,  and  are  required  by  imperial  echct 
to  be  worshipped  according  to  the  forms  of  that  religion. 
The  oiflcers  of  Government,  resident  in  particular  cities, 
regularly  visit  the  temples  of  these  State  gods  on  certain 
occasions.  Confucianism  is  theoretically  the  only  religion 
of  the  State,  but  practically  Taouism  is  not  less  so.  Besides 
this,  the  influence  of  the  philosophy  of  the  Taouist  system 
on  great  writers,  and  the  characteristically  national  tone  of 
10  E 


66  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

its  legends,  and  of  the  more  frivolous  and  nonsensical 
portion  of  its  doctrines,  help  to  show  that  it  is  properly 
described  as  national,  and  why  it  has  come  to  be  so. 

At  the  present  time  a  city  cannot  be  without  its  temples, 
nor  can  these  temples  be  suitably  taken  care  of  without 
inviting  Buddhist  or  Taouist  priests  to  assist.  The  pro- 
tector of  the  city  must  have  a  temple  where  worship  is 
performed  specially  on  the  ist  and  15  th  of  each  month. 
There  are  no  persons  so  well  adapted  to  undertake  this 
duty  as  the  priests  of  Taou. 


(67  ) 


CHAPTER   VI. 

INFLUENCE   OF   BUDDHISM   ON  CHINESE   LITERATURE, 
PHILOSOPHY,   AND   NATIONAL   LIFE. 

The  reader  is  now  invited  to  give  Ms  attention  to  some 
sketches  of  the  influence  of  Buddhism  on  the  national  life 
of  the  Chinese.  It  has  been  unquestionably  great.  The 
Hindoo  mode  of  thought  is  more  speculative  and  philoso- 
phical than  the  Chinese.  The  practical  Chinese  mind  had 
not  amused  itself  with  visiting  those  subtle  depths  of 
speculation  which  were  famiUar  to  the  Hindoo.  They 
could  not  invent  an  abstract  philosophy  like  that  of 
Buddhism,  but  they  could  follow  it,  and  understand  it 
when  translated  into  their  language.  In  the  early  part  of 
the  Christian  era,  translations  of  a  vast  number  of  philoso- 
phical and  other  works  were  made  from  the  Sanscrit. 
They  taught  the  Buddhist  doctrines  in  an  elegant  form, 
which  could  not  fail  to  attract  readers  in  a  cultivated 
nation  like  the  Chinese.  Some  traces  of  their  influence 
will  now  be' pointed  out  as  found  in  the  w^orks  of  cele- 
brated authors. 

The  priests  of  this  reKgion  are  fond  of  fountains  and 
caves.  In  order  to  impart  to  them  an  air  of  sanctity,  they 
invent  legends  of  the  appearance  of  divine  personages  in 
their  neighbourhood,  or  attach  to  them  some  reminiscence 
of  the  visits  of  remarkable  men.  The  poet  Soo-tung-po 
was  regarded  by  them  as  one  of  their  best  friends,  though 
he  never  abandoned  Confucianism.  To  keej)  him  in  re- 
membrance, and  to  show  their  gratitude  for  the  verses  he 
wrote  in  praise  of  their  mode  of  life  and  their  doctrines, 
they  have  dedicated  to  him  more  than  one  wayside  spring 


68  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

where  he  is  said  to  have  halted  on  a  journey.  I  have  seen 
some  of  them  when  travelling  in  the  province  of  Chekeang. 
They  were  pointed  out  by  the  resident  priests  as  Se-yen- 
tseuen,  the  spring  where  the  poet  washed  his  inlvstone. 

Another  poet,  nearly  of  the  same  period,  was  Taou-han, 
He  has  described  a  visit  to  one  of  the  most  famous  monas- 
teries in  China,  the  Teen-chuh-sze,  at  Hangchow.  This 
ancient  establishment  is,  in  its  modern  form,  of  most 
magnificent  dimensions.  Its  name  is  derived  from  that  of 
India,  which  was  called  Teen-chuh  by  the  Chinese  when 
they  first  became  acquainted  with  it  (or  at  least  when 
their  books  first  mention  it),  about  the  time  of  Christ. 
There  were  about  700  priests  belonging  to  this  establish- 
ment when  I  visited  it  twenty  years  ago.  It  is  in  a 
mountain  hollow  about  three  miles  froni  the  city.  A  long 
paved  road  leads  to  it,  bordered  by  shrubberies,  and  orna- 
mented with  numerous  monuments  to  the  dead,  either 
tombs,  or  those  erections  called  -pai  low,  constructed  of 
upright  and  horizontal  slabs  of  granite,  and  sculptured  with 
the  names  and  virtues  of  remarkable  persons.  The  poet 
sketches  the  appearance  of  the  monastery  as  he  arrived 
there  in  the  evening.  After  walking  for  some  time  up  the 
path,  which  was  shaded  by  a  thick  overgrowth  of  cypresses 
and  pines,  he  came  in  sight  of  the  temple.  He  describes 
the  lofty  gateway,  through  which  the  visitor,  passing  by 
the  four  gigantic  guardian  deities  who  stand  as  sentinels  at 
Buddha's  door,  enters  the  great  court.  He  notices  the 
great  hall  where  Shakyamuni  Buddha  appears,  enthroned 
on  a  vast  lotus.  On  each  side  and  behind  was  a  wilder- 
ness of  cloisters,  side-rooms,  sleeping-rooms,  and  apartments 
for  the  monks  according  to  their  gradations.  He  passed 
the  night  there,  and  noticed  the  contrast  between  the 
silent  groves  outside,  and  the  halls  of  the  monastery  echo- 
ing at  intervals  during  the  night  with  the  chanting  of 
prayers  and  the  striking  of  bells.  From  his  window  he 
saw  the  moon  shining  on  the  lake,  and  the  sound  of  run- 
ning brooks  fell  on  his  ear.     The  peculiarity  of  his  tern- 


EFFECT  OF  BUDDHISM  ON  LITERATURE.        69 

porary  lodging-place  led  him  to  think  of  the  land  of  the 
Brahmans.  He  then  tells  how  he  fell  into  a  pleasant 
reverie,  in  which  the  chain  of  cares  that  had  wound  itself 
round  him  was  broken,  and  his  mind  felt  free  to  wander 
in  the  realms  of  abstraction. 

Every  large  monastery  has  its  printed  history,  and  such 
poems  as  the  preceding  are  carefully  preserved  in  it  as  the 
homage  paid  by  literature  to  religion.  The  priests  of  this 
old  monastery  still  entertain  visitors  hospitably.  The 
abbot  was  very  friendly  in  his  manner  when  my  com- 
panion and  I  were  there,  so  nmch  so  that  he  recommended 
an  adjoining  piece  of  ground  for  building  a  Christian 
temple.  He  thought  that  the  Buddhist  and  Christian 
religions  might  be  maintained  very  harmoniously  in  this 
close  proximity  to  each  other.  He  added  some  remarks 
on  the  hostility  shown  by  Christian  missionaries  to  idol- 
atry, and  recommended  that  they  should  exhibit  what  he 
chose  to  represent  as  a  more  liberal  spirit,  and  cease  from 
their  attacks  upon  the  customs  of  other  religions. 

The  influence  of  Buddhism  on  Chinese  philosophy  is 
seen  in  the  writings  of  Choo-foo-tsze,  and  other  authors  of 
his  time.  He  was  a  man  who  left  a  very  deep  and  long- 
enduring  impression  upon  the  literature  of  his  country. 
The  most  modern  school  of  authorship  has,  indeed,  changed 
its  tone  respecting  him.  It  charges  him  with  an  imperfect 
system  of  criticism,  and  witli  yielding  to  Buddhist  influence 
in  his  peculiar  philosopliy  and  his  mode  of  interpreting 
the  ancient  books.  But  till  recently  he  was  considered  as 
almost  a  second  Confucius.  He  was  undoubtedly  one  of 
China's  greatest  men,  and  was  the  most  prominent  among 
all  the  authors  of  the  middle-age  period  in  that  country. 
Eelics  of  such  a  man  are  preserved  with  affectionate  vene- 
ration. I  have  seen  a  harp  that  belonged  to  him.  It  was 
in  the  possession  of  a  native  gentleman,  an  amateur  in  harp 
music.  He  carried  it  with  him  when  travelling,  as  the 
most  precious  of  his  curiosities,  and  played  upon  it  to 
amuse  his  friends.     I  heard  him  perform  a  tune  intended 


^o  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

to  represent  a  quarrelsome  discussion  between  a  woodman 
and  a  fisherman.  It  was  a  five-stringed  instrument.  The 
strings  were  modern,  but  the  wood  looked  very  old. 
Whether  it  had  seen  seven  hundred  summers  and  winters, 
and  had  actually  been  played  on  by  the  great  philosopher, 
I  will  not  undertake  to  say.  But  Confucius,  as  well  as  his 
commentator,  was,  it  is  said,  very  fond  of  music.  When 
Choo-foo-tsze  was  a  child,  and  just  able  to  talk  a  little,  a 
noted  scholar,  a  friend  of  his  father,  pointed  to  heaven  and 
said,  "  See,  that  is  heaven."  The  child  answered,  "  And 
what  is  there  above  heaven?"  The  scholar  only  replied 
by  a  look  of  astonishment  at  the  intelligence  these  words 
exhibited.  At  five  years  old  he  went  to  school,  and  com- 
prehended the  whole  meaning  of  the  "  Book  on  Filial  Piety" 
at  the  first  reading.  He  wrote  on  the  margin,  "  If  any  one 
has  not  this,  he  is  not  a  man."  When  he  went  with  other 
children  to  play  upon  the  sandy  channel  of  a  mountain 
stream,  he  would  leave  them,  and  busy  himself  with  mark- 
ing upon  the  sand  the  eight  diagrams  that  form  the 
basis  of  Chinese  philosophy.  When  he  was  a  young  man 
he  studied  with  avidity  the  books  of  Buddha  and  Taou. 
He  did  this  only  to  increase  the  range  of  his  reading.  He 
never  became  a  convert  to  their  opinions.  They  left,  how- 
ever, a  marked  impression  upon  his  mind.  He  speaks  in 
terms  of  glowing  admiration  of  one  of  their  books — the 
"  Leng-yen-king,"  in  which  there  is  an  elaborate  argument 
to  prove  that  none  of  the  objects  presented  to  us  by  the 
senses  are  real. 

This  author  and  his  contemporaries,  when  they  read  the 
subtle  treatises  of  the  Buddhists  on  philosophical  ques- 
tions, felt  ashamed  of  the  simplicity  of  their  own  system, 
and  tried  to  impart  to  it  an  air  of  scientific  refinement. 
The  diagrams  of  Fuh-he,  which  he  had  drawn  on  the  sand 
in  his  childhood,  were  nothing  but  lines,  arranged  parallel 
to  each  other  in  certain  varying  forms.  It  was  said  by 
sages  that  these  diagrams  contained  within  them  the  system 
of  the  universe.      Bare  symbols  may  be  made  to  mean 


MODERN  VIEWS  OF  GOD.  71 

anything ;  and  it  was  easy  to  affirm  that  these  lines,  the 
most  ancient  relic  of  the  art  of  writing  that  the  Chinese 
possess,  represent  the  formation  of  the  world.  Confucius 
added  that  the  Great  Extreme,  or  Tae-keih,  was  at  the 
beginning  of  all  things,  but  he  did  not  describe  precisely 
what  the  Great  Extreme  was.  The  school  to  which  our 
author  belonged  were  not  satisfied.  New  additions  were 
made,  too  abstract  to  be  detailed  here,  to  the  doctrine  of 
the  Tae-keih. 

An  attempt  was  made  to  define  the  Great  Extreme. 
Confucius  probably  meant  by  it  nothing  but  a  boundary  in 
time — the  commencing  epoch  of  the  gradual  formation  of 
all  things.  Our  author  and  his  friends,  fresh  from  the 
perusal  of  works  which  denied  the  existence  of  matter,  and 
also  that  of  a  Supreme  Creator,  ventured  on  the  assertions, 
that  the  Tae-keih  is  identical  with  the  ultimate  reason 
(Taou-le),  and  with  God  (Shang-te);  that  creation  is  a  spon- 
taneous process,  not  effected  by  an  agent;  and  that  there 
is  no  personality  in  God.  This  was  the  form  they  chose 
for  their  national  philosophy.  Very  different  it  is  from 
the  old  Chinese  system,  in  which  no  doctrine  is  more  mani- 
festly an  article  of  faith  than  the  personality  of  God, 
although  it  does  not  expressly  say  that  He  was  the  Creator, 
self-existent  and  eternal. 

It  was  the  teaching  of  this  modern  system  which  Com- 
missioner Yeh  brought  forward  in  his  conversations  with 
Mr.  Wingrove  Cooke,  as  detailed  in  his  work,  "  China  in 
1857-58."  In  the  very  graphic  and  interesting  account 
there  given  of  the  commissioner,  he  (Yeh)  speaks  some- 
times in  the  character  of  a  Chinaman  of  the  genuine  Con- 
fucian school;  as  when  he  says,  "Tien  means  properly 
only  the  material  heaven,  but  it  also  means  Shang-te 
(supreme  ruler);  for  as  it  is  not  lawful  to  use  his  name 
lightly,  we  name  him  by  his  residence,  which  is  in  Tien." 
At  other  times  he  falls  into  the  phraseology  of  the  modern 
school,  where  he  says,  "  Shang-te  and  Taou-le  (reason,  the 
ultimate  reason)  are  one  and  the  same  thing."     He  speaks 


72  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

afterwards  of  the  personage  worshipped  by  the  Taouists  as 
Shang-te,  a  priest  of  that  religion  who  lived  in  the  Han 
dynasty:  "  Shang-te,"  he  says,  "  is  a  Taouist  Taou-le."    This 
is  a  specimen  of  the  facile  way  in  which  the  Chinese  will 
in  conversation  pass  over  from  one  stand-point  to  another, 
without  giving  the  slightest  intimation  of  their  doing  so  to 
the  interrogator.      To  understand  such  men  as  Commis- 
sioner Yeh,  it   is   necessary  to  distinguish  between  the 
different  systems  they  are  familiar  with.     The  ancient  and 
modern  Confucian  philosophy  must  be  separated,  and  the 
peculiarities  of  Buddhism  and  Taouism  properly  considered. 
One  of  Mr.  Cooke's  conclusions  is,  that  "the  Confucian 
philosophy  recognises  only  nature,  self-produced,  active, 
but  will-less  and  unintelligent."     But  this  is  the  view  of 
the  modern  commentators  on  ConfuciuvS,  not  of  Confucius 
himself.    They  began  to  speak  in  this  way  after  Buddhism 
had  taught  them  how  to  construct  a  system  of  negative 
instead  of  positive  doctrines.     It  was  the  Hindoo  mind 
that  led  the  way  in  the  hardy  assertion  that  nature  may 
subsist  without  God.     The  philosophers  of  China  yielded 
to  the  wish  to  become  speculators  on  the  laws  of  the 
world,  and  retaining  the  phraseology  that  they  found  in 
Confucius,  proceeded  to  eliminate  such  ideas  as  that  of  a 
personal  God  and  of  moral  retribution,  as  administered  by 
a  person,  and  when  they  had  reduced  the  universe  as  much 
as    possible    to    abstractions,   concluded   the    process    by 
identifying  the  terms  of  their  philosophy.     This  is  just 
what  is  done  by  the  German  when  he  says  that  reason, 
God,  knowledge,  being,  and  thinking  are  identical  expres- 
sions.     It  is  not  easy  to  say  from  Mr.  Cooke's  narration 
which  view  Yeh  preferred— the  old  doctrine  of  a  personal 
God,  who  dwells  in  heaven,  and  whose  name  it  is  not  law- 
ful to  use  lightly;  or  that  of  the  sophistical  modern  school, 
which  finds  nothing  at  the  basis  of  nature  but  a  principle. 
The  scholars  of  his  nation  are  now  forming  themselves 
into  two  parties,  holding  these  opposite  views,  and  it  w^ould 
be  interesting  to  have  known  under  which  banner  he  would 


DEFINITION  OF  SHANG-TE.  73 

have  preferred  to  enlist.  We  incline  to  think  that  he 
would  have  chosen  the  former,  according  to  which  God  is 
known  simply  as  the  Supreme  Euler,  infinitely  just,  good, 
and  powerful.  This  is  the  real  faith  of  the  Chinese.  For 
the  sake  of  argument,  they  will  speculate  and  sophisticate, 
or  they  will  repeat  the  sophistries  of  others;  but  the 
deeper  principle  of  national  religious  faith  will  assert  itself 
in  their  more  earnest  moments,  and  they  will  return  to  a 
more  reasonable  system. 

Mr.  Cooke  arrived  at  another  conclusion  from  the 
opinions  of  Yeh,  namely,  that  the  Protestant  missionaries 
are  wrong  in  using  the  term  Shang-te  for  God,  because  it  is 
the  name  of  a  created  being.  If  it  is  the  name  of  a  created 
being,  it  is  so  only  in  the  opinion  of  a  modern  philosoj)liical 
school ;  but  even  in  this  case  the  word  "  created  "  does  not 
convey  the  idea  contained  in  the  corresponding  Chinese 
expressions.  What  they  mean  is  rather  development  than 
creation.  They  may  speak  of  Shang-te  being  developed 
from  the  ultimate  principle ;  but  if  this  modern  school  had 
such  a  dogma  respecting  the  origin  of  Shang-te — a  subject 
not  alluded  to  in  the  old  literature  of  the  country — this 
circumstance  would  not  necessarily  render  that  term  less 
suitable  to  be  used  as  a  translation  for  our  word  God. 
How  can  we  expect  them  to  have  in  all  points  correct 
views  of  the  Divine  Being  ? 

The  influence  of  Buddhism  in  producing  modifications  in 
the  philosophy  of  the  Chinese  is,  although  perfectly  visible, 
not  acknowledged  by  those  who  have  become  subjected  to 
that  influence.  But  there  are  not  wanting  very  numerous 
assertions  of  the  most  unqualified  kind,  that  the  two 
religions  are  identical  in  their  principles.  For  example : 
Commissioner  Yeh  told  Mr.  Cooke  that  "  the  Taoli  of  Con- 
fucius is  at  one  with  the  Taoli  of  Buddha."  There  is  a 
class  of  books  published,  frequently  for  gratuitous  distri- 
bution as  religious  tracts,  maintaining  this  view.  The 
Buddhist  reasons  that  there  is  nothing  real  but  Buddha, 
that  the  mind  is  Buddha,  and  that  to  attain  to  the  state  of 


74  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

Buddha  it  is  only  necessary  to  watch  the  mind  and  follow 
out  our  own  nature.  This  is  what  a  priest  of  that  religion 
would  probably  give  as  an  answer,  if  asked  to  put  in  two 
or  three  sentences  the  essential  features  of  his  system.  It 
is  very  common  for  the  Confucianist  who  is  favourably 
disposed  to  Buddhism  to  say  that  in  these  statements  the 
term  Buddha,  "intelligence,"  is  put  for  what  he  calls 
"  reason  "  (Ze)  or  "  nature  "  {sing),  and  that  they  amount  to 
nothing  more  or  less  than  the  doctrine  that  human  nature 
is  originally  good,  and  that  the  path  of  reformation  and 
perfection  lies  in  following  out  our  nature.  It  is  in  this 
way  that  they  assert  the  identity  of  the  Taou-le  of  Confucius 
and  of  Buddha. 

I  knew  a  native  scholar  of  great  ability  who  had  been 
a  Buddhist  priest  in  his  youth.  Not  satisfied  with  his 
prospects  as  a  member  of  the  monkish  fraternity,  he 
resolved  to  let  his  hair  grow,  and  return  to  Confucianism. 
There  is  no  comparison  between  the  respectability  of  the 
two  religions,  and  the  scope  that  they  afford  for  those  who 
have  energy  and  enterprise.  My  former  acquaintance  was 
ambitious,  and  abandoned  the  cloistered  seclusion  of  a 
monastery  to  try  his  fortune  in  a  wider  field.  His  Buddhist 
reading,  however,  made  him  think  favourably  of  that 
religion.  He  said  to  me  on  one  occasion,  "All  countries 
have  their  sages.  We  have  Confucius.  Buddha  was  the 
sage  of  India.  The  Mongols  have  the  Dalai  Lama,  and  the 
Mohammedans  Mahomet.  You  in  the  West  have  Jesus. 
It  is  necessarily  so  in  the  arrangements  of  Heaven.  You 
speak  of  Adam  in  your  Scriptures.  He  is  no  other  than 
our  Pan-koo." 

This  show  of  liberality  is  very  common  with  the  Chinese 
when  conversing  with  foreigners  upon  Christianity.  It 
springs  partly  from  politeness,  which  induces  them  to 
admit,  for  the  time,  the  equality  of  the  religion  of  their 
foreign  interlocutor  with  their  own.  It  comes  in  part, 
also,  from  the  circumstance  that  they  do  not  claim  a 
divine    character   for   Confucius.      They   regard    him   as 


EFFECT  OF  BUDDHISM  ON  CONFUCIANISM.     75 

nothing  more  than  the  wisest  of  men.  They  never  speak 
of  him  as  God,  nor  do  they  claim  inspiration  for  his  words. 
They  can  afford,  then,  to  admit  that  other  religions  are  as 
suitable  for  other  nations  as  theirs  is  for  them,  if  they 
enjoin  a  good  morality.  An  ethical  test  is  the  only  one 
they  know.  When  the  evidence  of  a  new  reKgion  is  pre- 
sented to  them,  they  at  once  refer  it  to  a  moral  standard, 
and  give  their  approval  with  the  utmost  readiness,  if  it 
passes  the  test.  They  do  not  ask  whether  it  is  divine, 
but  whether  it  is  good.  This  tolerant  mode  of  viewing 
other  religions  is  one  of  the  effects  of  the  introduction  of 
Buddhism  into  China. 

The  Chinese  having  this  mode  of  viewing  religions  as 
equally  good,  the  difficulty  often  felt  by  the  Christian  mis- 
sionary in  persuading  them  to  believe  in  the  religion  of 
Christ  will  be  easily  perceived.  He  may  prove  its 
divinity,  but  this  does  not  go  far  with  a  latitudinarian 
people,  who  give  their  assent  equally  to  all  systems  that 
have  a  good  moral  code. 

The  influence  of  Buddhism  on  Confucianism  is  seen 
most  palpably  in  the  mixing  of  its  rites  with  the  worship 
of  ancestors.  Of  all  religious  ceremonies,  the  people  of 
China  think  this  the  most  important.  It  is  related  of 
some  of  the  high  officers  that  they  will  visit  their  ancestral 
chapel  in  the  morning  to  pass  some  time  in  self-examina- 
tion, having  the  feeling  that  they  are  likely  to  discharge 
this  duty  more  faithfully  in  the  presence  of  the  holy  tablets 
which  preserve  the  remembrance  of  their  forefathers,  and 
act  as  a  sort  of  guardian  penates  in  protecting  and  conse- 
crating their  homes.  To  look  upon  these  tablets  is  to  a 
Chinese  like  an  appeal  to  his  honour.  He  dares  not  com- 
mit any  act  that  will  bring  dishonour  on  his  ancestral 
name.  He  feels  rewarded  when  he  has  done  anything  that 
he  is  conscious  is  not  unworthy  his  ancestors.  It  is  rever- 
ence for  them  that  constitutes  the  most  powerful  religious 
sentiment  in  his  mind. 

The  Buddhist  masses  for  the  dead  afforded  the  oppor- 


76  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

tunity  of  showing  in  a  palpable  manner  the  regard  felt 
for  ancestors.  The  ancestral  worship  is  simple.  Simpli- 
city marks  the  style  of  the  funereal  temple  and  the  family 
cemetery.  The  common  eye,  not  satisfied  with  simplicity, 
was  pleased  with  the  rich  dresses,  genuflexions,  and  pro- 
cessions of  the  Buddhist  monks,  and  especially  with  the 
preparations  that  they  undertake  to  make  for  the  soul  of 
the  departed  in  the  invisible  world. 

These  additional  rites  are  performed  in  the  family  home, 
not  in  the  ancestral  temple.  The  Hindoo  metempsychosis 
allows  great  scope  to  tlie  fancy  in  imagining  the  condition 
of  the  departed  soul  in  the  next  world.  I  saw  on  one 
occasion,  at  Kwun-shan,  a  large  paper  house  burnt.  It 
was  intended  to  be  the  residence  of  the  deceased  in  Hades. 
Kwun-shan  is  a  city  passed  by  the  traveller  on  his  way 
from  Shanghai  westward  to  Soochow.  The  walls  include 
a  much  wider  space  than  is  needed  by  the  population ;  but 
the  deficiency  of  inhabitants  is  made  up  by  a  busy  suburb 
outside  the  gates  on  the  river-side.  A  hill  crowned  with 
a  pagoda  within  the  city  is  its  principal  ornament,  and 
forms  a  landmark  for  many  miles  round.  From  this  hill 
the  city  presents  a  very  umbrageous  aspect.  The  Chinese 
are  fond  of  trees  in  their  cities,  and  this  gives  them  a  very 
pleasant  habitable  appearance. 

My  fellow-travellers  and  I  followed  a  funeral  procession 
that  we  met  in  the  streets,  and  were  admitted  to  the  house 
where  the  principal  ceremonies  were  to  be  performed,  with- 
out difficulty.  We  went  in  with  a  crowd  of  other  strangers 
through  the  open  doors,  as  is  commonly  done  in  China  on 
such  occasions.  The  paper  house  for  the  departed  soul 
was  near  its  completion.  It  was  about  ten  feet  liigh  and 
twelve  feet  deep.  It  contained  a  sleeping-room,  library, 
reception-room,  entrance-hall,  and  treasury.  It  was  fur- 
nished with  paper  chairs  and  tables.  We  saw  boxes  of 
paper  money  carried  in.  A  paper  image  of  the  dead 
appeared  in  the  interior  seated  in  state.  There  was  a  sedan 
chair,  with  bearers,  and  also  a  boat  and  boatman,  for  the 


THE  DOCTRINE  OF  METEMPSYCHOSIS.  77 

use  of  the  deceased  in  the  unseen  world.  A  table  spread 
with  food  was  placed  in  front  of  the  house.  A  party  of 
Buddhist  priests  now  came  forward  and  walked  in  proces- 
sion, striking  bells  and  chanting.  As  they  passed  round 
the  house  they  threw  rice  and  wheat  upon  it.  The  family 
came  forward  and  worshipped  their  deceased  mother,  for 
whose  use  the  house  was  built.  They  wore  white  cotton 
cloth  and  sackcloth,  white  cloth  shoes,  and  white  cotton 
braid  at  the  ends  of  their  pigtails,  instead  of  the  usual  silk 
braid,  used  as  a  terminal  decoration  to  that  ornament. 
The  Chinese  think  that  in  mourning  costume  the  material 
should  be  uncoloured,  and  they  therefore  employ  white. 
In  this  they  resemble  the  ancient  Jews,  who  wore  sack- 
cloth, as  being  a  coarse,  uncoloured  material,  on  occasions 
when  they  desired  to  make  an  outward  expression  of  grief. 
After  the  act  of  worship,  some  shots  were  fired,  and  then  a 
light  was  applied  to  the  fragile  paper  fabric,  and  in  a 
moment  it  was  in  flames.  It  stood  in  an  open  court 
within  the  family  residence. 

According  to  the  doctrine  of  metempsychosis  we  are  all 
passing  through  a  succession  of  lives,  some  past  and  some 
to  come ;  and  the  life  on  which  we  are  about  to  enter  may 
be  sufficiently  like  the  present  to  allow  of  provision  being 
made  for  our  comfort  there  in  a  way  such  as  that  just 
described.  Pdch  Confucian  families  in  China  are  in  the 
constant  habit  of  performing  similar  ceremonies  for  the 
dead.  Ab  uno  disce  omnes.  And  although  the  individual, 
when  appealed  to,  will  say  that  they  are  of  no  use,  that  he 
does  not  believe  in  their  efficacy,  and  only  permits  them 
in  conformity  to  local  custom,  it  is  quite  possible  that  in 
most  cases,  under  this  pretended  infidelity,  there  may  be 
no  little  faith  in  the  metempsychosis,  and  in  the  validity  of 
Buddhist  rites  founded  on  that  doctrine.  Men,  from  their 
natural  constitution,  will  have  some  belief  in  a  future 
state.  This  comes  from  the  teaching  of  the  internal 
monitor,  "  the  divinity  within  us  that  points  out  a  here- 
after, and  intimates  eternity  to  man."     While  Christians 


78  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

were  slow  to  convey  the  truth  to  China's  teeming  multi- 
tudes, the  Buddhists  seized  upon  their  opportunity,  and 
fed  with  Hindoo  fictions  the  craving  after  some  knowledge 
of  the  future  life  which  they  found  among  this  and  the 
other  nations  they  visited. 

Faith  in  the  Hindoo  view  of  the  future  state  is  very  com- 
mon among  the  Chinese  Confucianists.  It  does  not  amal- 
gamate well  with  their  own  system.  The  two  doctrines  are 
far  from  dovetailing  nicely  together.  They  know  tliis,  and 
are  not  offended  when  the  Buddhist  view  is  denied.  They 
revere  it  less  than  the  teaching  of  Confucius,  but  still  they 
have  some  faith  in  it.  They  conform  to  Buddhist  cere- 
monies, and  believe  to  some  degree  that  they  are  valid  and 
efficacious.  If  obliged  to  make  their  choice,  they  would 
prefer  the  doctrine  of  Confucius,  but  since  it  is  not  expected 
in  China  that  a  man  should  restrict  himself  to  one  religion, 
they  conform  to  both  without  caring  for  the  contradiction 
and  inconsistency  that  such  a  course  involves.  This  need 
not  surprise  us,  when  we  recollect  how  a  faith  in  witch- 
craft and  fairy  mythology  among  many  of  our  own  people 
existed  several  centuries  after  Christianity  had  become  the 
national  faith. 


(79   ) 


CHAPTER    VII. 

INFLUENCE   OF   BUDDHISM   ON   CHINESE  LITERATURE 
AND  SOCIAL  LIFE — Coiitimied. 

The  illustrations  contained  in  the  last  chapter  of  the  influ- 
ence of  Buddhism  on  the  literature  and  national  life  of  the 
Chinese  will  now.  be  continued  by  the  citation  of  a  curious 
passage  from  a  scientific  tract  published  some  years  ago 
at  Hangchow.  The  author  is  treating  upon  modem  Euro- 
pean astronomy.  He  had  read  of  the  discovery  of  Uranus 
and  ISTeptune,  of  the  motion  of  the  sun  attended  by  his 
planets  among  the  fixed  stars,  and  of  the  statement  that 
the  fixed  stars  themselves  are  suns  shining  upon  planetary 
systems  of  their  own.  He  is  tiying  to  comprehend  this 
for  himself,  and  to  make  it  plain  to  his  reader.  He  first 
takes  for  comparison  a  scene  very  familiar  to  a  Chinaman's 
eye.  He  imagines  the  hall  of  a  rich  man's  mansion  orna- 
mented by  a  large  number  of  hanging  lanterns.  They  are 
seen  by  the  visitor  as  he  walks  under  them  to  be  hung 
from  the  ceiling  in  lines  and  circles  according  to  a  regular 
plan,  but  when  looked  at  from  a  distance,  the  rows  of 
'lanterns  appear  to  cross  each  other  in  a  very  confused 
manner.  He  does  not  give  in  his  adhesion  to  the  modern 
European  astronomy  without  an  attempt  to  show  how 
much  of  it  was  known  to  his  countrymen  before.  He 
quotes  ancient  Chinese  authors  who  had  said  that  the  earth 
is  round,  and  that  it  moved  from  west  to  east;  that  in 
winter  it  travels  to  the  north-west,  and  in  summer  to  the 
south-east,  passing  over  the  middle  points  of  its  journey  at 
the  equinoxes.  These  things  are  said  in  very  old  books, 
and  we  must  allow  the  ancient  Chinese  all  the  credit  they 


8o  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

deserve  for  them,  altliough,  like  the  theories  of  Nicetas 
and  Pythagoras,  they  were  not  commonly  believed  in  at 
the  time. 

Not  content  with  this,  he  proceeds  to  say  that  the 
Buddhist  cosmogony  has  anticipated  the  modern  European 
astronomy :  "  Their  books  speak  of  a  great,  a  middle,  and  a 
small  universe  of  a  thousand  worlds.  I  used  to  wonder  at 
the  falsity  and  absurdity  of  such  descriptions  of  the  uni- 
verse until  I  read  the  new  astronomical  views  of  the  men 
from  the  West,  who  say  that  through  boundless  space  are 
scattered  numberless  nebulae  made  up  of  thickly-clustered 
stars.  They  also  say  that  the  stars  sprinkled  over  the 
heavenly  vault  are  so  many  suns,  each  of  them  having 
several  earths  revolving  round  it.  They  tell  us  also  that 
the  Milky  Way  is  a  nebula,  and  contains  within  it  the  sun 
as  one  of  its  component  stars.  The  sun  is  the  nearest  to 
the  earth  of  all  the  stars,  and  therefore  he  appears  to  us 
much  larger  than  they  do.  Wliat  the  men  of  the  West 
have  discovered  by  astronomical  instruments  agrees  re- 
markably with  the  opinions  of  the  Buddhists.  I  cannot 
but  admire  the  sagacity  of  these  men.  By  the  light  of 
their  wisdom  they  were  able  to  discover  without  the  use  of 
instruments  the  vastness  of  the  universe.  Is  not  their 
sagacity  far  superior  to  that  of  the  followers  of  Confucius, 
who  never  imagined  the  existence  of  numberless  other 
worlds  spread  through  the  region  of  infinite  space  ? "  He 
then  states  that  the  long  periods  of  revolution  of  the  more 
distant  planets  resemble  what  was  said  by  the  Buddhists 
of  the  heavens  in  their  cosmogony.  In  the  paradise  of 
Tushita,  for  example,  four  hundred  of  our  years  make  one 
day.  In  that  of  Shiva,  a  thousand  six  hundred  years  of 
our  time  constitute  one  day. 

We  see  here  the  first  effect  of  European  science  on  the 
mind  of  a  scholar,  himself  a  Confucianist,  but  well  read  in 
Buddhist  literature.  Nothing  can  be  more  palpably  ficti- 
tious than  the  system  of  the  world  to  which  he  refers. 
The  inventors  of  the  cosmogony  of  the  Northern  Buddhists 


BUDDHIST  K ALP  AS.  8i 

were  metaphysicians  who  denied  the  existence  of  matter, 
and  when  they  spoke  of  immense  assemblages  of  worlds  in 
various  parts  of  space,  only  intended  them  to  be  the  imagin- 
ary abodes  of  imaginary  Buddhas,  partaking  in  no  way  of 
reality.     These  Buddhas,  with  the  realms  over  which  they 
reigned,  were  symbols  of  ideas,  and  nothing  more.     The 
Chinese  reader  of  their  works,  looking  at  things  from  his 
practical,  unimaginative  point  of  view,  will,  as  in  tliis  case, 
mistake  their  object,  and  see  in  these  ideal  creations  of  the 
subtle  Hindoo  intellect  proofs  of  a  sagacity  that  he  thinks 
can  bear  comparison  with  that  of  those  European  investi- 
gators who  possessed  the  power  to  discover  the  unknown 
truths  of  nature — with  the  genius  of  such  men,  for  ex- 
ample, as   Copernicus   and   Newton.     It  is  known  from 
experience  that  when  the  geological  periods  in  the  history 
of  the  earth  are  mentioned  to  intelligent  Cliinese,  they  will 
remark,  "  That  is  just  like  what  we  have  read  in  Buddhist 
books  before."     These  books  speak  of  an  endless  succession 
of  Kalpas,  or  periods  of  alternate  formation  and  decay. 
According  to  this  view,  the  world  is  subject  to  incessant 
changes  under  the  dominion  of  fate.     This  fate  is  exercised 
in  agreement  with  the  laws  of  moral  retribution,  so  far  as 
it  refers  to  living  beings.     In   relation   to   the   physical 
world,  it  causes  it  to  pass  through  four  periods,  those  of 
formation,  conservation,  decay,  and  destruction.     As  often 
as  this  fourfold  process  is  completed  it  begins  again.     This 
system  of  the  world  occurs  to  the  mind  of  the  follower  of 
Confucius  when  he  hears  of  the  theories  of  modern  geology. 
The  living  author  already  quoted  from  says  the  appear- 
ance of  new  stars,  and  the  disappearance  of  old  ones,  as 
described  in  Western  astronomy,  accords  with  the  Buddhist 
account  of  the  history  of  worlds. 

When  such  men  read  the  Mosaic  narrative  of  creation, 
they  will  be  likely  to  bring  forward  an  objection  to  it 
from  modern  geology.  They  have,  then,  to  be  met  with 
the  same  arguments  which  are  addressed  by  defenders 
of  Divine  revelation  at  home  to  those  that  impugn  its 
10  F 


82  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

authority.  The  Christian  missionary  in  China  must  be 
prepared  to  meet  there  cultivated  men,  who  will  oppose 
him  with  the  arguments  of  an  infidel  logic,  just  as  he 
will  also  find  dense  masses  of  population  whose  religious 
faith  consists  of  gross  superstitions.  All  the  opposition 
that  intellectual  activity  and  degrading  superstitions  can 
unitedly  bring  against  Christianity  will  be  likely  to  exist 
in  a  country  like  China.  This  will  not  surprise  those  who 
remember  the  character  of  the  resistance  made  to  Chris- 
tianity in  India  by  the  educated  class.  Educated  Hindoos 
prefer  to  attack  the  religion  of  Jesus  with  weapons  drawn 
from  the  armoury  of  infidelity,  rather  than  with  those 
furnished  by  superstition.  So  it  wall  be  in  China  in  the 
coming  contest.     To  be  forewarned  is  to  be  forearmed. 

Similar  instruction  may  be  derived  from  another  work 
lately  published  by  a  Confucianist  at  Soochow.  Protestant 
missionaries  are  now  hoping  to  estabHsli  themselves  at 
this,  among  other  gTeat  cities  that  are  to  be  opened  to  the 
Christian  traveller.  They  may  meet  there  with  the  writer 
of  the  work  we  refer  to,  and  with  other  men  who  think  like 
him.  How  these  men  think,  and  what  opinions  they  hold  on 
science  and  religion,  may  be  learned  from  a  book  like  this. 

He  attacks  Matthew  Eicci,  the  first  Jesuit  missionary 
in  Cliina,  for  teaching  the  Ptolemaic  system  of  the  world. 
He  states  that  the  doctrine  of  nine  crystalline  spheres  en- 
circling the  earth  like  the  coats  of  an  onion,  the  uppermost 
of  them  all  constantly  carrying  the  other  eight,  which 
contain  the  stars  and  planets,  along  with  it,  is  absurd.  He 
also  criticises  Copernicus.  He  allows  that  the  earth  has 
a  motion  round  its  own  axis,  but  not  round  the  sun. 

To  what  this  author  says  upon  Christianity,  allusion 
will  be  made  in  a  subsequent  part  of  this  work.  At  pre- 
sent I  shall  only  refer  to  his  views  on  Buddhism.  He  has 
a  section  upon  supernatural  beings.  These  include  those 
personages  commonly  worshipped  as  divinities,  and  also 
the  souls  of  ancestors.  He  says  the  worship  of  the  gods 
and  genii  of  Taouism,  the  belief  in  fabulous  islands  whose 


CRITICISM  ON  BUDDHISM.  83 

inhabitants  enjoy  perpetual  youth,  and  the  use  of  charms 
and  divination,  are  comparatively  modern  in  China.  He 
proceeds  to  animadvert  on  the  doctrine  of  hell  and  the 
metempsychosis,  or  the  "  revolving  wheel "  of  life  and 
death.  It  came  from  India,  and  it  was  when  Buddhism 
was  taught,  he  complains,  that  China  heard  for  the  first 
time  of  a  return  to  life  after  death,  of  a  judge  of  men's 
actions  in  Hades,  of  birth  into  another  world,  and  of  the 
acts  of  the  present  life  being  recollected  in  a  future  one. 
All  these  things  come,  he  says,  from  the  ever-active  human 
mind,  which  spontaneously  believes  in  these  doctrines,  and 
likes  to  put  faith  in  various  supernatural  beings.  Whether 
we  assert  or  deny  them,  we  cannot  feel  sure  that  we  are 
right.  We  only  know  this,  he  thinks,  that  all  religious  doc- 
trines and  customs  come  out  of  the  mind  itself.  His  con- 
clusion is,  that  men  have  a  natural  tendency  to  believe  in 
these  things,  that  differences  in  opinion  on  religious  matters 
depend  on  the  country  where  they  exist,  and  that  there  is 
no  ground  of  certainty  respecting  them.  He  finds  a  proof 
of  his  opinion  in  the  separation  of  the  soul  at  death,  when, 
according  to  the  common  Chinese  doctrine,  the  ethereal 
and  grosser  parts  of  the  soul  return  to  their  respective 
sources,  the  Yang  and  Yin.  These  are  the  male  and 
female  principles,  the  two  elements  that  pervade  all  nature. 
The  soul  having  been  divided  in  this  way,  he  argues  that 
it  cannot  be  supposed  capable  of  living  again.  How 
then,  he  asks,  can  the  spirits  that  are  worshipped,  and 
which  are  popularly  believed  to  be  the  souls  of  deceased 
men,  be  really  still  existing  ?  The  life  of  man,  and  of 
living  things  generally,  depends  on  the  union  of  these 
two  principles,  and  ceases  with  their  separation.  He 
asserts  his  disbelief  in  the  reality  of  the  beings  worshipped 
by  his  countrymen  as  gods  on  this  ground.  It  may 
appear  a  very  insufficient  argument  to  us,  but  this  is  the 
form  that  his  thoughts  take  upon  the  subject.  He  rests  his 
denial  of  the  being  of  the  gods  upon  the  dogma  that  the 
soul  cannot  have  an  individual  conscious  existence  after 


84  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

death.  His  countrymen  suppose  that  the  soul,  like  the 
body,  is  compound.  There  is  the  rational  soul,  that  which 
thinks;  the  animal  soul,  which  presides  over  the  body; 
and  a  thu-d  which  is  the  seat  of  the  passions.  Immortality 
is  secured  if  these  parts  are  kept  from  separating.  The 
discipline  of  the  Taouist  sect  is  intended  to  effect  this.  But 
our  author  disbelieves  in  the  possibility  of  preventmg  the 
parts  of  the  soul  from  becoming  scattered.  Yet  he  admits 
that  the  souls  of  ancestors  should  be  worshipped,  because 
otherwise  the  great  duty  of  affectionate  respect  to  parents 
would  fall  into  neglect.  The  popular  divinities  should 
also  be  worshipped,  because  it  is  a  good  thing  for  men  to 
be  controlled  by  a  sentiment  of  veneration  for  superior 
beings. 

Surely  the  Christian  revelation,  coming  to  men  with 
Divine  authority,  and  fortified  by  objective  proofs,  is  re- 
markably suited  to  the  state  of  mind  of  this  writer. 
Buddhism  does  not  profess  a  Divine  origin.  It  is  no- 
thing but  the  work  of  the  human  intellect  and  imagina- 
tion, operating  on  a  large  scale,  such  as  might  be  expected 
in  the  product  of  Hindoo  pantheism.  It  elevates  philo- 
sophy above  God.  It  is  subjective  and  human.  It  does 
not  address  the  Confucianist  with  a  voice  of  authority  as 
from  God.  He  looks  at  it,  as  he  thinks  Confucius  himself 
would  have  done,  if  it  had  entered  China  in  his  time.  The 
words  of  the  great  sage  recur  to  his  memory.  He  repeats 
them  rapidly  over.  "  Abundant  is  the  beneficent  activity  of 
the  supernatural  powers."  This  seems  to  favour  belief  in 
them,  and  reverence  for  them.  He  cites  another  familiar 
extract :  "  Honour  the  supernatural  powers,  but  keep  them 
at  a  distance."  The  sage  of  China  thinks  we  should  not 
have  too  much  faith  in  or  reverence  for  the  gods.  There 
is  nothing  certain  and  tangible  in  what  we  know  of  them. 
Let  us  discharge  the  duties  we  owe  to  men.  It  will  be 
better  to  make  up  our  deficiencies  towards  them  than  to 
give  our  attention  to  beings  of  whom  we  know  so  little. 
It  is  with  these  sentiments  that  our  author  closes  his 


RELIGION  IN  SOOCHOW.  85 

chapter  upon  the  KAvei-shin  (tlie  gods).  He  is  something 
more  of  an  unbeliever  than  his  master,  hnt  he  defers  to  his 
master's  teaching.  He  opposes  one  human  religion  with 
the  dicta  of  another  human  religion.  Neither  of  these 
systems  claims  any  other  authority  than  that  of  eminent 
men  for  their  doctrines,  and  the  common  conscience  of 
mankind  for  their  morality.  Christianity,  taking  higher 
ground,  resting  upon  Divine  insjDiration  and  external  his- 
torical evidences  of  its  Divine  source,  will,  it  may  be 
lioped,  when  rightly  understood  by  men  like  our  author, 
be  felt  to  supply  what  the  religions  of  his  country  have 
failed  to  give  him.  He  declines  to  believe  in  the  gods  of 
Buddliism  and  Taouism,  because  they  have  been  imagined 
by  the  human  mind,  and  rest  on  no  proofs  of  their  own. 
Christianity  has  that  sort  of  evidence  and  of  certainty  that 
will  meet  his  requirements,  if  he  can  be  brought  to  under- 
stand it.  But  at  first,  when  Christianity  is  offered  to  the 
educated  Chinese,  they  will  look  at  it  from  the  Confucian 
stand-point,  and  condemn  it  as  belonging  to  the  same  class 
of  religions  as  Buddhism.  This  we  shall  have  the  oppor- 
tunity of  illustrating  by  extracts  when  Ave  discuss  the 
present  attitude  of  literature  in  that  country  in  respect  to 
Christianity, 

The  city  where  this  author  resides,  Soochow,  had  before 
its  capture  by  the  Taipings,  a  population  of  a  million  two 
hundred  thousand.  The  wall  is  twelve  English  miles  in 
length,  and  there  are  very  populous  suburbs.  Is  he  a 
fair  representative  of  the  opinions  of  his  fellow-citizens  ? 
The  views  of  the  scholar,  sending  forth  a  pamphlet  on 
science  and  religion  from  the  seclusion  of  his  family 
mansion,  may  be  expected  to  differ  from  those  of  the  multi- 
tudes who,  bent  on  business  or  pleasure,  throng  the  streets 
in  his  vicinity.  To  illustrate  their  sentiments  on  the  doc- 
trines of  Buddhism  I  will  here  refer  to  what  I  have  seen 
among  them.  A  friend  and  I  were  once  taken  to  the 
official  residence  of  a  mandarin  of  the  third  class.  He  led 
us  through  his  suite  of  apartments,  which  were  hand- 


86  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

somely  furiiislied  in  the  best  Chinese  style.  He  had  a 
large  Spanish  oil-painting  of  a  lady,  which,  instead  of 
being  hung  on  a  wall,  was  covered  up  and  kept  in  a  cup- 
board. He  valued  it  very  highly.  In  the  innermost  of 
his  apartments  upstairs  we  found  what  seems  to  have 
been  the  most  sacred  thing  to  him  that  his  house  con- 
tained. It  was  the  shrine  and  image  of  Kwan-yin,  goddess 
of  mercy.  On  the  table  beside  it  was  a  copy  of  the  book 
of  prayers  used  in  the  worship  of  this  divinity.  It  was 
not  one  printed  in  the  common  Chinese  mode,  from  wooden 
blocks,  but  an  impression  from  stone  tablets,  on  which 
these  prayers  had  been  engraved  five  centuries  ago  by  a 
celebrated  artist,  and  which  are  preserved  as  an  important 
antique  relic  in  some  Buddhist  temple.  Before  the  image 
sticks  of  incense  were  burning,  which  had  been  fresh 
lighted  that  morning.  A  follower  of  Confucius  should  not, 
if  consistent,  worship  Kwan-yin,  nor  keep  her  image  in 
liis  house.  But  we  found  that  our  mandarin  friend  had 
the  innermost  corner  of  his  residence  devoted  to  this 
superstition.  He  would  profess,  like  his  fellow-mandarins, 
to  disbelieve  in  the  ef&cacy  of  worship  of  this  kind,  but 
this  little  incident  taught  us  that  the  professions  of  a 
follower  of  Confucius  are  no  index  to  his  private  belief. 
Temples  are  to  be  seen  in  nearly  every  street  of  a  Cliinese 
city ;  but  this  is  not  enough  to  satisfy  the  disposition  of 
the  inhabitants  to  practise  idolatry.  They  will  also  have 
a  private  chapel  in  their  own  houses  if  it  be  practicable, 
which  they  may  visit  each  morning  for  the  performance  of 
an  act  of  worship. 

Take  another  example  of  the  extent  to  which  Buddhism 
is  believed  in  a  city  like  Soochow,  from  the  class  of 
artisans.  When  residing  as  a  missionary  at  Shanghai,  I 
had  been  on  one  occasion  denying  the  doctrine  of  a  former 
life.  Popular  Buddhism  in  China,  carrying  out  to  the  full 
the  belief  in  the  Hindoo  metempsychosis,  maintains  a 
previous  life  to  account  for  our  present  one,  quite  as 
strongly  as  it  insists  on  our  present  life  being  followed  by 


TRANSMIGRATION.  87 

a  future  one  of  retribution.  A  tailor  from  Soocliow,  who 
formed  one  of  the  audience,  remarked  that  there  must  be 
some  cause  for  the  misfortunes  of  our  condition  in  this 
life,  and  that  that  cause  was  in  the  sins  of  a  former  state. 
It  was  stated  to  him  in  reply,  that  our  present  calamities 
are  the  result  of  the  sins  of  our  ancestors,  and  that  they 
can  be  accounted  for  in  tliis  way,  without  the  supposition 
that  we  ourselves  had  lived  and  sinned  in  the  person  of 
some  individual  of  a  former  generation.  He  was  then 
asked  why  Kwan-foo-tsze,  the  deified  hero  of  an  ancient 
dynasty,  had  never  appeared  again  in  times  of  danger  to 
save  his  country,  and  why  Confucius  had  not  been  born 
into  the  world  afresh  to  restore  the  nation  to  virtue  and 
good  order  ?  If  his  doctrine  of  a  former  life  were  true, 
and  the  same  person  might  appear  in  the  world  at  different 
periods,  great  men  like  these  would  not  fail  to  be  recog- 
nised on  their  second  arrival.  He  replied,  that  if  Con- 
fucius had  not  appeared  among  mankind  a  second  time, 
Kwan-foo-tsze  had  done  so,  and  that  not  very  long  ago,  in 
the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Kanghe. 

The  opinions  of  this  artisan  may  be  taken  to  illustrate 
two  thino's — the  notion  that  the  common  Chinese  have  of 
another  life,  and  that  which  they  entertain  of  the  incar- 
nation of  divine  persons.  They  see  a  law  of  retribution 
pervading  the  world,  and  human  life  is  to  their  conceptions 
so  enlarged  as  to  embrace  an  indefinite  number  of  past  and 
future  periods.  These  successive  lives  may  be  passed  in 
this  world,  or  in  heaven,  or  in  hell,  or  in  some  intermediate 
localities.  Thus,  the  soul  of  a  woman  may,  as  a  reward 
for  virtue,  on  entering  the  world  a  second  time,  inhabit 
the  body  of  a  man.  Chinese  women  frequently  pray  for 
this.  A  wicked  man  may  become,  as  a  punishment,  a 
sheep,  or  an  ant,  or  a  bird.  The  retribution  is  decreed  by 
a  sure  but  invisible  and  impersonal  fate,  the  same  law  of 
fate  that  regulates  the  succession  of  worlds,  which  are 
constantly  being  created  and  destroyed  afresh  in  the  order 
of  the  ever-revolving  Kalpas.     According  to  this  view,  the 


88  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

region  through  which  the  soul  may  wander  during  the 
interminable  series  of  lives  through  which  it  must  i^ass 
includes  all  tlie  palaces  of  the  gods,  and  of  other  beings 
possessing  a  different  nature  from  that  of  man,  as  also  the 
abodes  of  punishment  for  the  wicked.  How  strongly  the 
common  Cliinese  believe  in  these  Buddhist  opinions  may 
be  shown  by  a  reference  to  the  fact  that  they  trace  bodily 
calamities  to  sins  in  a  former  state  of  existence.  On  one 
occasion  a  patient  in  an  hospital  at  Shanghai,  when  asked 
by  a  missionary  if  he  knew  himself  to  be  guilty  of  sin, 
looked  significantly  at  his  diseased  foot,  and  asked,  "  How 
can  I  be  without  sin  ?  I  must  have  committed  some  crime 
in  a  former  life." 

The  other  notion  that  the  preceding  conversation  illus- 
trates is  that  of  the  incarnation  of  divinities.  Personages 
like  Kwan-foo-tsze,  the  god  of  war,  may  appear  again  and 
again  in  successive  centuries.  In  the  event  of  his  reap- 
pearance, the  person  whose  body  he  inhabits  will  be  noticed 
to  have  the  qualities  of  the  long-deceased  hero  by  the  more 
sagacious  of  his  contemporaries.  The  incarnation  takes 
place  in  such  a  way  that  the  individuality  of  the  person  in 
whom  the  divinity  resides  is  not  destroyed. 

The  Taouists,  who  have  been  servile  imitators  of  the 
Buddhists  in  very  many  points,  adopted  from  them  this 
mode  of  increasing  the  importance  of  certain  personages  to 
whom  they  wished  to  pay  especial  honour.  They  say  of 
Laou-keun,  the  founder  of  their  religion,  that  he  was  born 
into  the  world  several  times  before  and  after  the  date  of 
his  historical  appearance. 

The  popular  phraseology  of  the  Chinese  language  fur- 
nishes, on  examination,  abundant  evidence  of  the  very 
extensive  influence  of  Buddhist  ideas.  The  Chinese  speak 
of  certain  localities,  which  they  call  Um  tang,  the  "  heavenly 
paradise,"  and  te  yuh,  "earth's  prison,"  and  which  corre- 
spond nearly  to  our  terms  heaven  and  hell.  These  terms,  not 
found  in  the  books  of  the  Confucian  religion,  are  univer- 
sally familiar  to  all  classes  of  the  people.     Christian  mis- 


SECRET  MERIT.  89 

sionaries,  in  teaching  the  Bible  doctrine  of  retribution, 
make  use  of  these  names  for  heaven  and  hell,  as  being  the 
best  equivalents  they  can  find.  The  consciousness  of  im- 
mortality, natural  to  men,  has  among  the  common  Chinese 
people  been  moulded  into  this  form.  When  stripped  of  a 
Buddhist  dress,  such  conceptions  constitute,  like  the  other 
parts  of  natural  religion,  a  preparation  for  the  reception  of 
Christianity. 

The  common  notion  in  China  of  merit  attaching  to  charit- 
able actions,  and  the  forgiveness  of  sins  for  the  sake  of 
them,  comes  from  Buddhism.  The  phrase  yin  hung,  "  invis- 
ible merit,"  is  very  much  in  use.  It  means  merit  that  wins 
the  approval  of  invisible  beings,  and  ensures  a  reward  from 
them.  All  acts  of  kindness  and  benevolence  are  thus 
designated.  The  performance  of  a  mass  by  Buddhist 
priests  for  the  rescue  of  a  soul  from  one  of  the  prisons  in 
hell  is  called  hung  tih,  "  merit."  The  distribution  of  money 
and  food  to  the  poor,  and  the  repairing  of  roads  and  bridges, 
are  spoken  of  as  meritorious  actions,  wliich  will  be  sure  to 
bring  rewards  from  the  unseen  powers  that  watch  human 
conduct.  Such  actions  are  called  simply  haou  she,  "  good 
acts,"  a  phrase  which  has  become  a  synonym  for  alms- 
giving. The  Chinese  beggar,  when  he  calls  to  passers-by 
for  money,  is  understood  to  be  asking  charity,  although  he 
says  only,  Tso  haou  she — "  Do  a  good  action."  He  frequently 
adds  the  phrase,  Setu  tsze  sew  sun — "Act  virtuously,  that  you 
may  obtain  sons  and  grandsons."  These  expressions  have 
come  into  use  because  Buddhism  has  promulgated  the  idea 
that  virtue  consists  in  exercisino-  kindness  towards  those 
who  suffer.  The  Confucian  notion  of  virtue  is  rather  that 
of  doing  one's  duty.  The  Buddhist  conception  of  it  may 
be  gathered  from  such  phraseology  as  this,  which  is  univer- 
sal in  China  in  the  speech  of  the  common  people. 

Many  of  the  most  frequently  used  phrases  for  retribu- 
tion are  Buddldst,  in  fact  all  those  that  allude  to  rewards 
and  punishments  in  a  future  state.  The  sight  of  a  great 
act  of  wickedness  will  suggest  to  a  bystander  to  say  that 


90  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

the  perpetrator  deserves  to  be  confined  in  a  prison  in  hell, 
eighteen  stories  deep.  A  good  action  is  supposed  to  excite 
the  regard  of  the  invisible  good  beings  that  inhabit  the  air. 
In  a  popular  romance,  "  The  Tale  of  a  Guitar,"  a  young 
wife  is  very  assiduous  in  performing  the  offices  of  filial 
piety  to  her  husband's  parents.  He  has  deserted  her  and 
them,  and  is  living  in  the  metropolis  in  the  enjoyment  of 
the  highest  wealth  and  rank,  the  reward  of  his  talents. 
During  Ms  absence,  a  famine  deprives  his  family  at  home 
of  the  means  of  subsistence.  His  parents  die  of  hunger, 
and  are  buried  by  his  wife,  who  had  been  living  for  some 
time  on  the  husks  of  the  rice  with  which  their  lives  were 
supported.  She  prays  at  the  grave,  and  proceeds  to  raise 
over  it  a  mound  of  earth  with  her  own  hands.  Celestial 
soldiers  in  the  sky,  seeing  that  this  pious  task  was  weari- 
some and  exhausting  to  her,  came  to  her  aid.  For  every 
spadeful  of  earth  that  she  threw  on  the  grave,  a  thousand 
more  were  thrown  by  invisible  hands.  Several  terms  are 
employed  to  express  an  influence  of  this  sort  exerted  by 
the  virtuous  among  mankind  upon  celestial  beings.  They 
say  lictn  ying  joo  hiang,  "  the  influence "  on  the  part  of 
virtuous  persons,  and  "  its  response  "  on  the  part  of  celestial 
beings,  are  "  like  the  sound "  of  a  bell  when  struck  by  a 
clapper,  in  the  rapidity  of  the  effect  that  is  produced.  The 
phrase  paou  ying  expresses  protection  given  as  a  reward 
for  virtue,  or  in  answer  to  prayer. 

Maimed  beggars  appeal  to  the  bystanders  to  pity  them 
on  the  ground  that  they  are  "at  present  in  hell,"  their 
phrase  being  keen  tsae  te  yuh.  In  doing  so,  they  acknow- 
ledge themselves  to  be  sinners  of  a  very  deep  dye.  Of  this 
their  calamity  is  considered  to  be  a  proof. 

These  and  similar  notions  obtained  from  Buddhism  pre- 
vail universally  among  the  people  of  China,  as  shown  by 
the  constant  use  of  expressions  such  as  those,  a  few  of 
which  have  now  been  given.  They  prove  how  extensively 
Buddhism  has  influenced  a  population  that  is  still  nominally 
Confucian. 


(  91  ) 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

CONFUCIAN   AND   BUDDHIST  NOTIONS  OF  GOD. 

This  chapter  and  the  next  will  be  devoted  to  the  considera- 
tion of  the  opinions  the  Chinese  hold  respecting  God. 
Intelligent  men  among  them,  who  have  become  familiar 
with  Christianity,  say  that  the  ancient  Chinese  were  un- 
doubtedly more  religious  than  the  modern.  The  frequent 
mention  of  God,  under  the  denomination  Shang-te,  in  the 
earliest  books  of  the  nation,  may  be  regarded  as  a  proof  of 
this.  I  remember  a  Chinese,  of  fine  intellectual  appear- 
ance, having  made  this  statement.  It  was  not  to  be 
wondered  at,  he  said,  that  the  ancients,  being  much  nearer 
the  time  of  Adam,  should  be  more  imbued  with  the  spirit 
of  piety  towards  God,  than  men  belonging  to  modern  days, 
when  tradition  has  become  obscured  by  time.  The  further 
back  we  went  in  time,  he  observed,  the  more  near  to 
coincidence  would  the  traditions  of  his  nation  be  with  ours. 
Our  Chinese  friend  was  reminded  that  the  first  princes  of 
his  country  were  said,  in  the  ancient  books,  to  have  wor- 
shipped not  God  only,  but  also  the  spirits  of  mountains, 
and  rivers,  and  of  other  parts  of  nature.  Their  religion, 
then,  could  not  be  regarded  as  the  same  with  ours,  because 
they  offered  sacrifices  to  other  beings  beside  God.  But 
these  spirits,  he  replied,  are  the  same  that  are  called  angels 
in  your  Bible. 

With  all  due  respect  to  the  opinion  of  the  native  scholar 
to  whom  reference  is  here  made,  it  is  perhaps  more  correct 
to  regard  these  beings,  supposed  to  inhabit  different  parts 
of  nature,  as  deriving  their  origin  from  the  human  imagi- 
nation.    The  movements  seen  in  nature,  the  indications  of 


92  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

universal  life  which  perpetually  meet  our  eyes,  suggest  to 
the  observer  the  presence  of  supernatural  beings.  The 
Chinese  very  early  had  the  conception  of  powerful  beings, 
subordinate  to  God,  regulating  the  course  of  events  in  the 
physical  and  intellectual  universe.  They  called  them 
shin. 

There  are  inconsistencies  in  the  views  held  by  the 
Chinese  respecting  the  duty  of  worshipping  God.  Many 
followers  of  Confucius  seem  to  recognise  this  duty  when 
they  offer  incense  to  Heaven  on  the  new  and  full  moons. 
On  those  days  they  proceed  to  the  square  open  court  round 
which  the  family  home  is  built,  and  there,  under  no  cover- 
ing but  the  sky,  they  kneel  and  pray,  or  burn  incense,  to 
Heaven.  Yet  it  is  common  to  hear  the  Chinese  say,  that 
Heaven  should  be  worshipped  only  by  the  Emperor  in  the 
name  of  the  nation,  and  that  the  God  of  heaven  is  too 
majestic  and  glorious  for  a  common  man  to  dare  approach 
Him  as  a  worshipper.  The  people  and  the  officers  of 
Government  should  worship  the  subordinate  divinities  that 
preside  over  the  cities  or  districts  to  which  they  belong. 
This  is  the  theory,  but  it  is  not  strictly  carried  into  prac- 
tice. Some  profess  to  worship  Heaven  once  a  year,  others 
twice  a  month.  They  often  speak  of  adoring  Heaven  and 
Earth,  as  if  they  meant  two  divinities  by  those  terms.  The 
presence  of  gross  material  views  in  their  minds  leads  them 
away  from  the  one  invisible  Euler  to  the  world  which  He 
governs.  Then,  having  their  thoughts  fixed  on  the  world 
instead  of  its  Maker,  they  imagine  a  duality  of  ruling 
powers,  the  two  spirits  of  Heaven  and  of  Earth.  This  is 
favoured  by  the  prevailing  philosophy,  which  sees  a  duality 
all  through  nature.  Often  do  the  Chinese  argue,  as  they 
think  triumphantly,  in  a  way  like  the  following : — The  sun  is 
yang,  the  moon  is  yin  (or  light  and  darkness  respectively). 
Man  is  yang,  woman  is  yin.  The  south  is  yang,  the  north 
is  yin.  The  rational  soul,  liwun,  is  yang;  the  physical 
soul,  ^ih,  is  yin.  Heaven  is  yang,  eartli  is  yin.  They 
conceive  that  in  a  chain  of  antithetical  expressions  like 


MATERIALISTIC  VIEWS  OF  GOD.  93 

these  there  is  contained  a  perfectly  obvious  and  irrefra- 
gable proof  of  their  favourite  dualistic  philosophy.  Here 
is  their  weakness.  It  is  the  clinging  to  ancient  system 
that  keeps  their  minds  closed  against  truth  Avhen  it  comes 
to  them  in  a  novel  form.  They  will  not  go  out  of  their 
old-fashioned  tracks  of  thought.  It  was  through  this  mode 
of  thinking  that  they  readily  adopted  the  conception  of  two 
ruling  powers  in  nature,  which  they  call  Heaven  and  Earth. 
Instead  of  saying  that  they  worship  God,  they  will  more 
frequently  say  that  they  worship  Heaven  and  Earth.  The 
husbandman,  at  harvest,  when  he  has  gathered  in  his 
sheaves,  acknowledges  that  it  is  his  duty  to  amy  tccn  pae  te, 
to  "  thank  Heaven  and  worship  Earth." 

The  spiritual  element  has  been  very  little  developed  in 
the  minds  of  this  people  ;  they  have  not  had  Divine  revela- 
tion to  train  and  guide  the  spiritual  faculties.  This  is  the 
cause  of  the  confusion  of  ideas  which  the  common  people 
in  that  country  often  exhibit,  when  they  do  not  separate 
between  heaven  and  God.  They  are  not  accustomed  to 
the  conception  of  a  purely  immaterial  being.  Theii'  notions 
of  God  are  materialised.  They  confound  Him  with  the 
place  where  He  resides,  and  with  the  world  that  He  has 
created.  But  the  error  of  the  common  people  is  not  more 
mischievous  than  that  opposite  one  of  the  modern  philo- 
sophical school  that  has  identified  God  with  an  abstract 
principle,  and  maintained  that  there  is  no  distinction 
iDctween  God  and  Ic,  "  reason,"  the  law  of  the  world. 

They  have  more  easily  fallen  into  these  views,  because 
the  three  national  religions  have  been  occupied  with  ob- 
jects very  different  from  that  of  representing  God  as  the 
Eatlier  of  the  human  family,  who  must  be  expected  to  make 
His  will  known  ;  so  that,  when  missionaries  speak  of  God's 
commands,  their  auditors  will  sometimes  ask,  "  "What  are 
God's  commands  ?  "We  did  not  know  that  He  had  any. 
In  what  way  can  He  teach  us  anything  ?"  They  have  not 
been  led  to  look  at  religious  truths  and  duties  as  communi- 
cated and  enjoined  directly  by  God.     This  renders  it  hard 


94  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

to  persuade  them  that  idolatry  is  a  sin,  as  being  forbidden 
by  Divine  authority.  They  consider  idols  to  be  symbols, 
and  notliing  more.  They  see  that  it  may  be  foolish  to 
worship  them,  but  they  do  not  so  easily  perceive  that  it  is 
wicked.  Though  they  are  in  the  habit  of  recognising  the 
right  of  a  father  in  his  family,  and  a  king  in  his  kingdom, 
to  issue  special  commands,  they  are  not  accustomed  to 
tliink  of  God  as  being  likely  to  do  so.  The  ancient 
Chinese  believed  in  God  as  a  personal,  active  being,  the 
ruler  of  heaven  and  earth,  just,  powerful,  and  merciful; 
but  it  was  not  to  be  expected  that  this  belief  and  tradition 
of  theirs  by  itself  would,  through  the  long  ages  that  have 
intervened,  preserve  a  clear  knowledge  of  God  among  their 
descendants.  It  has  been  seen  that  they  have  fallen  into 
very  great  errors.  If  the  attributes  of  God,  according  to 
the  common  notions  of  the  Chinese,  were  examined,  they 
would  prove  a  most  manifest  need  of  the  light  of  revela- 
tion. For  example,  let  us  take  the  omnipresence  of  God. 
They  object  to  the  doctrine  that  Jesus  is  the  Son  of  God, 
because,  if  He  were  Divine,  He  would  have  left  heaven 
without  a  government  when  He  came  into  our  world. 
That  they  should  attempt  to  disprove  the  Divinity  of 
Christ  in  this  way,  shows  that  they  have  no  proper  con- 
ception of  the  omnipresence  of  God. 

With  regard  to  creation,  they  know  of  no  law  but  spon- 
taneity and  self-development  in  the  construction  of  the 
existing  universe.  They  consider  that  all  things  have 
come  to  be  as  they  are  of  themselves.  They  do  not  con- 
clude, from  the  marks  of  design  and  contrivance  which  are 
exhibited  in  nature,  that  there  must  have  been  an  intelli- 
gent Contriver.  Some  other  heathen  nations  have  been 
familiar  with  this  argument  of  natural  theology,  but  the 
Chinese  not  so.  All  their  descriptions  of  the  origin  of  the 
world  are  pervaded  with  the  idea  of  spontaneous  produc- 
tion. When  the  Christian  doctrine  of  creation  is  pre- 
sented to  them,  and  illustrations  of  the  infinite  wisdom  of 
God  in  it  referred  to,  they  admit  them  to  be  reasonable. 


ORIGIN  OF  THINGS  SPONTANEOUS.  95 

but  they  do  not  feel  it  to  be  a  necessity  that  they  should 
resign  their  own  idea  of  the  spontaneous  origin  of  the 
universe.  They  do  not  speak  of  the  v.ior'ks  of  nature  or  the 
worlis  of  God,  when  gazing  on  the  ever-moving  panorama 
which  that  universe  offers  to  the  eye.  They  prefer  to 
denominate  it  the  "  living  heaven"  and  the  "  living  earth." 
"  Why,"  they  have  often  been  asked,  "  should  you  speak  of 
those  things  which  are  dead  matter  fashioned  from  nothing 
by  the  hand  of  God,  as  living  beings  ?  Heaven  and  earth 
are  surely  not  jjersons?"  "And  why  not?"  they  have 
replied.  "  The  sky  pours  down  rain  and  sunshine.  The 
earth  produces  corn  and  grass.  We  see  them  in  perpetual 
movement,  and  we  may  therefore  say  that  they  are  living." 

These  opinions,  widely  diffused  among  the  mass  of  the 
people,  if  not  acceded  to  by  the  more  intelligent,  materially 
interfere  with  correct  views  of  God.  The  idea  of  creation 
most  familiar  to  the  Chinese  mind  is  that  there  was  a 
monad  at  the  beginning.  This  first  atom  separated  into 
two.  The  two  atoms  became  four,  the  four  were  changed 
into  eight,  and  the  eight  gave  origin  to  all  things.  If  the 
Chinese  are  asked  how  this  process  was  commenced  and 
continued,  they  answer,  that  "  it  came  of  itself" 

Preoccupied  with  this  particular  cosmogony,  they  do  not 
feel  any  necessity  for  a  creating  agent,  nor  are  they  led  to 
meditate  on  the  wisdom  of  God  as  displayed  in  His  works. 
While,  then,  we  find  that  the  Confucian  religion  is  mono- 
theistic, recognising  one  Supreme  Euler,  the  tradition  of 
whom  the  Chinese  had  from  the  earliest  period  of  their 
history,  they  have  been  left  with  very  insuflicient  notions 
of  some  of  the  Divine  attributes.  This  religion  has  failed 
to  represent  the  agency  of  God  in  creation  and  in  provi- 
dence, so  clearly  as  to  preserve  the  mass  of  the  nation  from 
grossly  erroneous  views  of  the  Divine  nature  and  from  the 
neglect  of  prayer.  A  young  man  of  the  artisan  class  had 
come  from  a  neighbouring  village,  a  few  years  since,  to  the 
city  of  Shanghai,  and,  entering  a  missionary  chapel,  had 
heard  an  address  on  Christianity.     The  auditors  were  in- 


96  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

vited  to  express  their  opinions  on  the  subject  of  religion. 
This  man  was  the  most  ready  to  comply.  He  adopted  a 
flippant  style  of  remark  indicating  no  little  admiration  of 
his  own  cleverness.  He  had  heard,  he  said,  for  seven  or 
eight  years,  occasionally,  foreigners  advocating  their  re- 
ligion, and  he  had  studied  it  with  many  other  systems  of 
belief  without  arriving  at  any  satisfactory  conclusion.  He 
was  acquainted,  he  said,  with  no  fewer  than  thirty  or 
forty  religious  systems,  and  he  had  discovered  something 
wrong  in  all  of  them,  Christianity  seemed  to  be  good,  but 
he  feared  that  there  would  be  found  defects  in  that  also. 
He  allowed  that  our  opposition  to  idolatry  and  incense- 
burning  is  reasonable,  and  asserted  that  he  had  long  given 
them  up,  but  he  considered  that  he  ought  to  adhere  to  the 
worship  of  ancestors  according  to  the  national  custom. 
The  prohibition  of  this  observance  by  Christianity  must 
prevent  his  becoming  a  believer.  He  was  recommended, 
seeing  that  he  could  not  find  satisfaction  in  any  of  the 
religions  he  had  examined,  to  abandon  these  restless  in- 
quiries, and  look  to  God  to  be  instructed  in  answer  to 
prayer.  "  How,"  he  asked,  "  can  instruction  from  God 
be  obtained  ? "  "  The  foreign  teacher  means,"  remarked 
a  bystander,  volunteering  an  answer,  "  that  God  will 
speak  to  you  in  a  dream  at  night."  "  No,"  said  the  mis- 
sionary, "  He  will  teach  you  from  His  Holy  Word,  this 
book.  In  the  course  you  have  hitherto  taken,  you  cannot 
expect  to  obtain  settled  convictions.  Try  a  new  method. 
Instead  of  weighing  with  a  minute  accuracy  the  respective 
merits  of  this  and  that  system,  seek  your  own  personal 
salvation  from  God,  and  the  forgiveness  of  sins."  "  Sins  ! " 
he  exclaimed,  "I  have  no  sins."  He  was  again  asked, 
"  Do  you  pray  to  and  thank  God  for  His  goodness  ? " 
"No,"  he  said.  When  reminded  that  the  neglect  of  those 
duties  was  sin,  he  rephed  again,  "  I  do  not  know  which 
God  (Shang-te)  to  believe  in.  There  are  many."  He  was 
met  with  the  reply,  "There  is  but  one  God.  How  can 
heaven   have   two   suns,  or  a  kingdom  two   sovereigns  ? 


THE  BUDDHIST  NOTION  OF  GOD.  97 

Surely  you  should  worship  Him.  He  made  heaven  and 
earth."  "But  how,"  he  replied,  "can  I  know  that  He  created 
heaven  and  earth  ? "  He  was  answered,  "  You  are  not  at 
liberty  to  deny  that  the  world  had  a  Creator.  This  house 
in  which  we  are  sitting  must  have  had  a  builder.  To 
speak  as  you  have  done  is  to  deprive  our  Maker  of  His 
glory.  You  would  do  better  to  submit  to  God  and  seek 
His  forgiveness."  He  did  not  attempt  to  refute  the  argu- 
ment from  design,  nor  did  he  acknowledge  its  validity. 
He  proceeded  to  defend  himself  with  weapons  of  another 
kind.  "You  differ  from  the  Eoman  Catholics.  How  can 
I  tell  whether  you  or  they  are  right  ? "  The  conversation, 
as  it  continued  in  this  new  channel,  need  not  be  further 
detailed.  What  has  been  given  serves  to  illustrate,  with 
respect  to  the  knowledge  of  God,  the  effect  of  the  Con- 
fucian system,  which  this  individual  professed  to  follow, 
upon  the  very  large  class  of  persons  whom  he  may  be 
taken  to  represent. 

When  we  leave  the  region  of  Confucian  thought,  and 
enter  into  that  of  Buddhism,  we  find  the  notion  of  God 
appearing  in  a  form  differing  from  that  which  meets  us 
elsewhere.  This  religion  is  professedly  atheistic.  It 
denies  that  there  is  an  eternal  God,  the  Creator  of  the 
world.  The  gods  that  it  admits  the  existence  of  are  sub- 
ject to  mortality  like  men,  and  limited  in  their  power. 
But  this  atheism  is  that  of  subtle  logicians,  and  it  cannot 
become  the  faith  of  common  men.  The  feeling  natural  to 
man  that  there  is  a  Divine  Power  present  in  the  universe 
must  express  itself.  If  the  activity  of  divine  beings  do 
not  exhibit  itself  in  creation,  it  may  do  so  in  providence. 
The  powers  attributed  to  the  Buddhas  and  Bodhisattwas 
are  supposed  to  be  exercised  in  answer  to  the  prayers  of 
men,  and  they  take  the  place  of  God  in  the  minds  of 
common  believers  in  that  religion. 

The  use  of  the  word  'poosa  in  Chinese  is  in  some  respects 

like  that  of  God.     The  lower  class  of  people  say  that'  all 

success  in  life,  for  example,  depends  on  the  protection  of 
10  G 


98  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

Poosa.  This  word  is  a  shortened  form  of  the  Sanscrit  term 
Bodhisattwa.  Originally  it  is  merely  a  designation  of  a 
class  of  Buddha's  disciples.  Their  progress  in  knowledge 
gives  them  power  over  nature,  and  they  exert  that  power, 
it  is  supposed,  for  the  good  of  mankind.  They  are  men 
elevated  to  their  position  by  wisdom.  Their  office  is  to 
teach  rather  than  to  govern,  but  the  power  to  control 
physical  nature  develops  itself  in  them  spontaneously,  as 
they  make  progress  in  comprehending  and  exemplifying 
the  doctrine  of  Buddha.  The  Poosa  feels  more  sympathy 
with  the  lower  wants  of  men  than  the  Buddha  does. 
Buddha  is  freed  from  desire.  He  knows  nothing  of  com- 
mon feelings.  His  aim  is  very  lofty  and  abstruse.  The 
disciple  who  is  far  advanced  in  the  path  of  enlightenment 
can  appreciate  his  teaching.  But  the  Poosa  is  more  within 
the  reach  of  human  sympathies.  He  is  prayed  to  for 
relief  from  sickness,  for  riches,  and  other  benefits  apper- 
taining to  the  animal  nature  of  man.  Both  Fuh  and  Poosa 
are  trusted  in  as  God  by  the  Chinese  Buddhist.  Both  are 
relied  on  for  protection  and  salvation.  Buddha  or  Fuh  is 
highest  in  rank,  but  Poosa  is  nearest  in  sympathy.  They 
are  both  viewed  as  having  divine  power  and  benevolence. 
They  are  alike  in  pitying  mankind,  or  seeking  to  save  men 
from  misery,  and  in  aiming  to  do  so  by  teaching.  They 
also  resemble  each  other  in  the  circumstance  that  they  are 
both  nothing  but  exalted  human  nature.  They  differ, 
however,  in  rank.  The  highest  of  all  conditions  is  that  of 
Buddha.  There  is  no  step  beyond  this  except  the  Nirvana, 
wliere  personality  is  lost  in  an  eternal,  unchangeable  state  of 
unconscious  existence.  It  is  here  that  the  distinction  dis- 
appears between  person  and  state,  and  between  thought 
and  being.  If  Buddha  does  not  enter  at  once  into  tlie 
Nirvana,  he  retains  his  personality  and  liis  conscious 
activity  merely  for  the  salce  of  mankind.  But  he  lives 
always  upon  the  verge  of  the  abyss  of  the  Nirvana,  ready 
to  sink  into  it  the  moment  that  his  appointed  work  of 
instructing  and  saving  living  beings  is  completed. 


SHAKYAMUNI  AND  AMITABHA.  99 

The  next  step  in  the  scale  of  being,  below  that  of  Fuh, 
is  Poosa.  Tlie  person  who  has  attained  to  this  rank  must 
become  Fiih  before  he  can  enter  the  Mrvana.  So  that  he 
is  not  supreme,  nor  absolutely  perfect,  nor  does  he  exercise 
creative  power,  nor  is  he  exempt  from  change,  nor  without 
the  need  of  improvement,  all  which  things  are  inseparable 
from  the  true  notion  of  God.  Poosa  is  a  learner  at  the 
feet  of  Buddha,  while  himself  a  teacher  of  others,  and  Fuh 
has  still  to  make  the  transition  into  the  Nirvana.  These 
things  show  that  Fuh  and  Poosa  are  far  from  exactly 
corresponding  to  the  notion  of  God;  and  this  will  be 
further  evident  from  tlie  meaning  of  the  words — Buddha 
signifies  jJCf'ccptiori,  and  Bodhisattwa  knowledge  and  pity. 

Such  are  the  beings  on  whose  power  and  desire  to  save 
common  Buddhist  minds  rest  as  they  should  do  upon 
God.  The  faith  that  they  ought  to  give  to  Him  they  give 
to  them. 

The  principal  Buddhas  that  they  thus  revere  are  Shakya- 
muni,  the  historical  founder  of  their  religion,  and  Ami- 
tabha,  who  presides  in  the  western  heaven,  the  paradise  of 
the  Northern  Buddhists.  It  is  the  image  of  Shakyamuni 
that  is  seen  occupying  the  centre  in  almost  all  temples  of 
this  religion  in  China.  Kneeling  and  bowing  are  the 
attitudes  of  worship.  Oral  prayers  are  used  or  not  as  the 
worshipper  pleases.  Though  the  image  of  this  Buddha  is 
everywhere  seen,  yet  he  is  not  so  much  trusted  to  and 
prayed  to  for  the  common  blessings  that  men  need  as  is 
Amitabha.  Amitabha  is  the  guide  of  the  disciple  to 
paradise.  He  is  therefore  called  "  the  guiding  Buddha  " — 
Tsie-yin-fuh.  His  immediate  providence  in  the  salvation 
of  the  disciple  seems  to  be  more  recognised  than  that  of 
Shakyamuni.  His  name  is  very  much  used  as  a  charm. 
It  is  constantly  heard  from  the  lips  of  the  hoshcmg  or 
monks  in  daily  conversation,  and  it  forms  the  burden  of 
their  prayers  while  performing  morning  and  evening  wor- 
ship in  monasteries.  The  common  phrase  Omitofuh  is  the 
Chinese  form  of  the  name  Amitabha  Buddha,  or  Amida 


loo  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

Buddha,  as  he  is  called  in  the  Mongolian  language.  There 
are  many  other  Buddhas  whose  names  are  occasionally 
mentioned,  but  they  are  much  less  known  than  these  two. 
Of  the  personages  honoured  with  the  name  of  Poosa, 
Kwan-yin,  the  goddess  of  mercy,  is  best  known.  This 
divinity  is  represented  sometimes  as  male,  at  others  as 
female.  At  present,  for  convenience'  sake,  we  use  the 
feminine  pronoun.  She  is  often  represented  with  a  child 
in  her  arms,  and  is  then  designated  the  giver  of  children. 
Elsewhere  she  is  styled  the  "Kwan-yin  who  saves  from 
the  eight  forms  of  suffering,"  or  "  of  the  southern  sea,"  or 
"  of  the  thousand  arms,"  &c.  She  passes  through  various 
metamorphoses,  which  give  rise  to  this  variety  in  names. 

In  Buddhist  books,  descriptions  are  given  of  what  is 
designated  the  true  Poosa.  His  feelings  are  very  benevo- 
lent, and  his  pity  for  the  victims  of  misery  that  he  sees 
prompts  him  to  seek  their  rescue  from  their  unhappiness. 
I  remember  an  aged  Buddhist  priest  who  had  spent  his 
life  from  his  boyhood  in  discharging  the  duties  of  his 
monastery.  His  head  bore  the  usual  mark  of  admission 
to  the  order  of  which  he  was  a  member,  viz.,  twelve  in- 
dentations made  in  the  skin  with  hot  iron  immediately 
above  the  forehead.  He  said  every  one  who  instructs  his 
fellow-men  in  vii'tue  is  a  true  Poosa,  and  any  act  of  real 
charity  and  self-sacrifice  is  that  of  a  Poosa. 

So  far  as  this,  Poosa  is  a  human  being,  animated  with 
the  wish  to  teach  and  save  men,  but  other  illustrations  of 
the  use  of  the  word  will  show  that  it  is  oftener  used,  in 
popular  phraseology,  as  denoting  powerful  protectors  be- 
longing to  a  supernatural  order  of  beings.  Chinese 
worshippers  will  sometimes  say,  for  example,  that  they 
must  spend  a  little  money  occasionally  to  obtain  the 
favour  of  Poosa,  in  order  to  prevent  calamities  from  assail- 
ing them.  I  saw  an  instance  of  this  at  a  town  on  the  sea- 
coast  near  Hangchow.  The  tide  here  is  extremely  destruc- 
tive in  the  autumn.  It  often  overflows  the  embankment 
made  to  restrain  it,  and  produces  devastation  in  the  adjoin- 


KWAN-YIN.  loi 

ing  cottages  and  fields.  A  temple  was  erected  to  the 
Poosa  Kwan-yin,  and  offerings  are  regularly  made  to  her, 
and  prayers  presented  for  protection  against  the  tide. 

About  two  years  before  the  capture  of  Canton  by  the 
Englisli  forces,  Yeh-ming-chin,  the  governor  of  the  pro- 
vince to  which  that  city  belongs,  was  engaged  in  exter- 
minating large  bands  of  roving  plunderers,  that  disturbed 
the  region  under  his  jurisdiction.  He  wrote  to  the  Emperor 
on  one  occasion  a  despatch  in  which  he  said  that  at  a  criti- 
cal conjuncture  in  a  recent  contest,  a  large  figure  in  white 
had  been  seen  beckoning  to  the  army  from  the  sky.  It 
was  Kwan-yin.  The  soldiers  were  inspired  with  courage, 
and  won  an  easy  victory  over  the  enemy. 

The  principal  seat  of  the  worship  of  Kwan-yin  is  at  the 
island  of  Pooto.  Here  he  (or  she)  takes  the  place  of 
Buddha,  and  occupies  the  chief  position  in  the  temples. 
We  were  on  our  way  there  once  from  the  island  of  Chusan, 
when  two  priests  begged  to  be  allowed  to  proceed  there  in 
the  same  boat.  They  had  travelled  far,  and  had  visited 
the  cities  and  mountains  where  the  Buddhist  worship  in 
China  is  most  flourishing.  One  of  them  spoke  of  clie,- 
hwci,  "  wisdom."  He  said,  in  answer  to  our  questions,  that 
it  was  to  be  obtained  by  prayer,  and  that  prayer  should  be 
offered  for  it  to  Kwan-yin.  He  was  reminded  that  this 
personage  was  altogether  unreal,  and  was  asked  why  he 
should  not  rather  pray  to  God  for  wisdom.  He  could  not 
worship  God,  he  said.  Kwan-yin  was  the  divinity  to 
whom  he  prayed.  The  claim  of  God  to  be  worshipped  he 
denied,  but  afterwards  admitted  it.  He  asserted  that 
Buddha  was  the  creator  of  heaven  and  earth ;  yet  when 
explanations  were  offered,  he  allowed,  perhaps  out  of 
compliment  to  the  foreign  visitor,  that  creation  was  the 
work  of  God. 

When  the  Buddhists  have  occasion  to  speak  of  Shang-te 
or  God  as  he  is  known  to  the  disciples  of  Confucius,  they 
identify  him  with  Indra  Shakra,  one  of  the  chief  Hindoo 
gods,  and  assign  him  no  higher  authority  or  wider  king- 


I02  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

dom.  This  remark  will  illustrate  some  parts  of  the  follow- 
ing description.  On  the  island  of  Pooto,  sacred  to  Kwan- 
yin,  as  already  observed,  there  are  many  small  caves 
dedicated  to  the  use  of  hermits,  or  venerated  as  having 
been  formerly  inhabited  by  holy  persons  who  pursued  that 
mode  of  life.  In  several  of  them,  high  up  on  a  hill-side, 
may  be  noticed  a  small  figure  of  Buddha,  intended  to 
remind  the  visitor  of  the  self-denying  and  secluded  life 
which  Buddha  led.  The  priests  who  resided  in  the  adjoin- 
ing monastery  entered  into  conversation  with  their  visitor 
from  afar  on  the  relative  position  of  God  and  this  self- 
elevated  hermit.  God,  they  said,  was  within  the  limits  of 
the  San-keae  (the  three  worlds,  heaven,  earth,  and  hell), 
but  Buddha,  they  maintained,  extended  his  authority 
beyond  these  boundaries.  They  alluded  to  the  imaginary 
universe  of  the  Northern  Buddhists,  in  which  the  visible 
one,  the  universe  as  known  to  us,  occupies  a  small  place 
in  the  centre.  They  confine  the  kingdom  of  the  gods, 
among  whom  is  Shang-te,  to  this  small  space.  They  were 
told  that  the  universe  of  which  they  spoke,  being  simply 
the  invention  of  former  writers  of  their  religious  books, 
could  not,  however  vast  its  proportions,  constitute  any 
real  accession  to  the  dominion  ruled  over  by  Buddha,  nor 
help  to  place  him  above  God.  God,  dwelling  in  heaven, 
was  the  true  God  of  the  world,  and  every  world  throughout 
space  was  subject  to  Him.  One  of  the  priests  in  the  hall 
where  this  conversation  took  place,  containing  several  idol 
shrines,  remarked  that  there  were  thirty-three  heavens,  in 
one  of  which  the  God  that  foreigners  worshipped  resided. 
It  was  stated  to  him  in  reply,  that,  according  to  the  views 
of  the  religion  which  he  followed,  the  heavens  he  spoke  of 
all  rested  on  the  crown  of  the  Sumeru  mountain,  but  in 
fact  no  such  mountain  existed ;  it  was  fabulous,  like  the 
imaginary  island  of  Pung-lae,  in  the  Eastern  Ocean,  and  the 
abode  of  Se-wang-mu,  the  mother  of  the  Western  King. 
This  personage  is  a  mythological  queen,  whom  old  Chinese 
fable  represented  as  dwelling  on  a  summit  of  the  Kwen- 


NIRVANA.  103 

lun  chain  in  Tibet.  The  priest  replied  that  the  Sumeru 
mountain  certainly  did  exist,  and  it  was  on  its  summit 
that  the  gods  resided  in  their  respective  abodes.  He  was 
informed  in  answer  that  the  ships  of  Western  men  had 
traversed  the  ocean  in  every  direction,  but  had  not  dis- 
covered this  mountain. 

From  what  has  preceded,  it  appears  that  Buddhism  is 
atheistic,  not  in  denying  the  existence  of  the  ruler  of  the 
world,  or  of  the  gods  of  popular  mythology,  but  in  abridg- 
ing the  power  and  jurisdiction  of  such  divinities.  In 
ascribing  to  God  a  limited  jurisdiction,  sulijection  to  birth 
and  death,  and  subordination  to  the  Buddhas  and  Bodhi- 
sattwas,  they  deprive  Him  in  fact  of  His  deity,  while  they 
allow  the  name  of  God  to  be  retained. 

The  true  source  of  this  bold  and  infatuated  attempt  to 
reverse  the  fixed  relations  between  God  and  man,  the 
Creator  and  the  creature,  is  found  in  the  spirit  of  Hindoo 
philosophy.  The  human  intellect,  lifted  up  with  pride, 
sought  by  the  help  of  philosophy  to  exalt  itself  above 
everything  that  is  called  God,  It  rebelled  against  the 
authority  of  a  personal  God,  and  preferred  to  exercise  faith 
only  in  a  state,  the  Nirvana,  where  consciousness  and  in- 
dividuality are  lost ;  and  life  and  death,  thought  and 
passion,  good  and  evil,  with  every  other  antithesis  possible 
to  man,  disappear  in  the  absolute  unity.  It  is  true  that 
the  Nirvana  is  not  peculiar  to  Buddhism,  belonging  as  it 
does  to  other  Hindoo  sects.  But  it  is  here  in  the  fiction 
of  the  two  states,  Buddha  and  Bodhisattwa,  and  the  other 
grades  beneath  them,  that  the  human  mind  has  made  the 
most  systematic  attempt  to  reduce  Deity  to  insignifi- 
cance, and  to  raise  itself  above  the  sphere  in  which 
Deity  resides  and  reigns.  We  are  amazed  to  find  here 
the  finite  thinking  soul  audaciously  imagining  for  itself, 
not  only  an  accessible  region  beyond  the  actual  uni- 
verse, and  outside  of  the  dominions  of  God,  but  under- 
taking to  lay  down  a  pathway  with  the  successive  steps 
marked,  by  which  those  distant   abysses  of  space   may 


I04  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

be  traversed,  and  the  world  of  the  senses  be  left  for  ever 
behind. 

The  form  of  Buddhist  temples  exemplifies  in  a  striking 
manner  the  relative  position  of  Buddha  and  the  gods. 
Four  kings  of  the  gods  are  represented  in  the  vestibule. 
Their  office  is  to  guard  the  door  by  which  entrance  is 
obtained  to  the  presence  of  Buddha.  They  perform  no 
more  dignified  duty  than  to  act  as  guards  and  as 
musicians  to  the  greater  personages  who  occupy  the 
interior  of  the  building.  The  central  position  is  that  of 
Buddha,  who  is  seated  on  the  lotus-flower  in  the  attitude 
of  a  teacher.  His  countenance  expresses  the  union  of  con- 
templation and  benevolence,  implying  wisdom  enabling 
him  to  teach,  and  compassion  inclining  him  to  save.  The 
great  Hindoo  divinities,  Brahma,  Seeva,  and  Shakra,  stand 
among  the  auditors,  and  they  occupy  a  lower  position  than 
the  personages  called  Poosa,  Lohan,  &c.,  who  are  scholars 
well  advanced  in  the  doctrine  of  Buddha. 

The  intention  in  this  arrangement  is  to  exhibit  human 
philosophy  as  transcending  Divine  power,  and  personages 
of  the  highest  rank  in  the  visible  universe  listening  sub- 
missively to  the  instructions  of  the  earth-born  sage.  But 
the  ideas  of  philosophers  fail  to  be  comprehended  by  the 
popular  mind,  and  the  common  worshipper  regards  the 
gods  whom  he  sees  in  a  subordinate  position  as  servants, 
and  nothing  more ;  while  he  trusts  and  prays  to  Buddha, 
the  personation  of  philosophy,  as  a  powerful  divinity.  He 
must  obey  the  impulse  of  his  nature  to  adore  that  which 
is  divine,  and  he  readily  finds  objects  for  his  worship  in 
personages  so  transcendent  in  wisdom  as  those  bearing  the 
title  of  Fuh  and  Poosa. 

In  the  next  chapter  will  be  illustrated  the  notion  of 
God  as  held  by  the  Taouists. 


(  I05  ) 


CHAPTER   IX. 

TAOUIST   NOTIONS   OF   GOD. 

The  notions  which  tlie  Taouist  sect  have  respecting  God 
and  the  gods  deserve  some  examination.  A  sketch  of 
them  will  form  a  suitable  supplement  to  what  has  already- 
been  said  of  the  views  held  on  the  same  subject  by 
believers  in  Buddha  and  Confucius. 

The  Taouist  mythology  resembles,  in  several  points,  that 
of  many  heathen  nations.  Some  of  its  divinities  personate 
those  beings  that  are  supposed  to  reside  in  the  various 
departments  of  nature ;  others  are  men  made  into  imagin- 
ary deities  by  a  process  of  apotheosis.  Among  the  gods 
originally  belonging  to  particular  portions  of  the  natural 
world  are  sea  and  river  gods,  star-gods,  and  those  that  pre- 
side over  meteorological  phenomena  and  over  the  produc- 
tions of  the  earth.  On  the  sea-coast  are  found  temples 
erected  to  the  Spirit  of  the  Sea,  the  King  of  the  Sea,  and 
the  God  of  the  Tide.  On  the  banks  of  rivers  the  shrines 
of  dragon-kings  are  common.  The  dragon  is  supposed  to 
reside  partly  in  air  and  partly  in  water.  Any  remarkable 
appearance  in  the  sky  or  on  the  surface  of  the  water  is 
frequently  pointed  to  as  a  dragon,  or  a  phenomenon  occa- 
sioned by  the  presence  of  a  dragon.  One  of  their  divinities 
is  called  "  the  Euler  of  Thunder,"  and  another  "  the  Mother 
of  Lightning."  Many  of  the  stars  are  worshipped  as  gods. 
Some  Greek  philosophers  supposed  the  stars  to  be  living 
beings,  and  divine.  The  Taouists  believe  in  a  doctrine 
something  like  this.  It  is  a  characteristic  instance  of  that 
materialism  which  marks  almost  all  Taouist  doctrines. 
The  stars  are  regarded  as  the  sublimated  essences  of  things. 


io6  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

The  world,  for  example,  is  made  up  of  five  kinds  of  matter, 
which  contain  each  of  them  an  essence  or  elementary  sub- 
stance. As  the  soul  is  an  essence  of  matter,  the  purest 
form  of  matter  in  the  body,  so  there  are  essences  belonging 
to  other  things,  which,  when  very  pure,  obtain  a  life  and 
individuality  of  their  own.  Tliey  constitute  the  souls  of 
coarse  matter.  Of  these  there  is  a  series  of  five,  which 
correspond  to  the  five  modes  of  subsistence  found  in 
material  nature,  viz.,  metal,  wood,  water,  fire,  and  earth. 
These  souls  of  the  five  elements  rose,  when  highly  purified, 
throuo-h  the  air  to  the  region  of  stars,  and  became  the  five 
planets.  Mercury  is  the  essence  of  water,  Venus  of  metal, 
Mars  of  fire,  Jupiter  of  wood,  and  Saturn  of  earth.  The 
fixed  stars  are  also  the  essences  or  souls  of  matter,  and 
other  essences,  believed  to  wander  through  space,  impelled 
by  an  internal  active  life,  are  also  called  stars,  although 
not  visible  in  the  heavens.  In  this  way  the  word  star  has 
come  to  have,  in  the  Chinese  language,  a  meaning  addi- 
tional to  the  common  one.  A  living  material  soul,  the 
sublimated  essence  of  matter,  is  so  denominated.  The 
process  of  thought  in  the  materiahstic  philosophy  of  the 
Taouists  was  carried  a  step  further.  These  stars  and 
essences  became  gods.  Tliey  were  regarded  as  having 
divine  attributes.  The  eye  of  the  contemplatist  of  this 
school  saw  in  the  starry  firmament  the  higher  portions  of 
the  vast  sea  of  ether  of  which  our  atmosphere  forms  the 
lower  and  grosser  part.  It  is  there  that  the  star-divinities 
revolve.  They  look  down  from  their  region  of  purity  and 
stillness  on  the  world  of  men,  and  they  influence  tlie 
fortunes  of  men  invisibly,  but  most  powerfully.  It  was  by 
carrying  out  this  way  of  thinking  that  alchemy  and  astro- 
logy became  an  important  part  of  the  Taouist  rehgious 
system.  They  are  necessarily  the  two  favourite  sciences 
of  a  materialistic  religion  like  this.  Tlie  one  deals  in 
essences,  the  other  in  stars ;  and  they  have  each  had  an 
extensive  influence  on  the  formation  of  the  Taouist  system 
of  divinities,  as  well  as  on  the  Taouist  doctrine  of  immor- 


WEN-CHANG.  107 

tality,  and  of  the  method  of  self-discipline  by  which  im- 
mortality is  to  be  gained. 

We  may  remark,  by  the  way,  that  an  interesting  parallel 
may  be  drawn  between  the  Chinese  and  the  European 
alchemy  and  astrology.  Great  light  on  the  signification 
and  origin  of  these  once  famous  studies  of  our  mediaeval 
period  may  be  obtained  from  the  same  studies  of  the  same 
kind  that  were  pursued  several  centuries  earlier  in  China. 
There  is  a  remarkable  analogy  in  the  double  meaning  of 
our  word  sjnrit  and  that  of  the  Chinese  word  sm//  (star) 
just  pointed  out.  The  terms  for  soul  and  for  essence — in 
Chinese  shin  and  tsing — are  often  convertible,  as  they  are 
in  our  language.  In  China,  however,  the  connection  of 
alchemy  and  astrology  as  branches  of  one  system,  and 'that 
a  religious  one,  are  more  clearly  discernible  than  in  the 
European  liistory  of  these  branches  of  knowledge,  once 
called  sciences. 

In  the  legendary  biography  of  the  Taouist  gods,  it  is 
common  to  say  of  them  that  a  star  descended  and  became 
incarnate  in  the  person  of  certain  noted  men,  who  thus 
obtained  their  divine  character.  Wen-chang,  the  god  who 
presides  over  literature,  is  a  divinity  of  this  kind.  A 
small  constellation  near  the  Great  Bear  receives  this  name. 
The  god  who  is  prayed  to  by  scholars  to  assist  them  in 
obtaining  the  reward  of  their  exertions  is  Wen-chang,  the 
divinity  of  whom  we  are  now  speaking.  His  representa- 
tive in  the  sky  is  this  constellation.  A  temple  is  erected 
to  him  in  Chinese  cities  apart  from  that  dedicated  to  Con- 
fucius. It  may  be  seen  built  on  an  elevated  earthen 
terrace,  and,  if  my  memory  serve  me  rightly,  of  six  sides, 
in  imitation  of  the  form  of  the  constellation,  which  has 
the  shape  of  a  hexagon.  Wen-chang  is  said  to  have  come 
down  to  our  world  during  many  generations  at  irregular 
intervals.  Virtuous  and  highly ■  gifted  men  were  chosen 
from  history  as  likely  to  have  been  incarnations  of  this 
divinity,  and  then  legends  were  invented  statiug  it  as  a 
fact.     The  regard  paid  to  the  god  of  literature  by  the  class 


io8  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

of  scholars  proves  that  the  Taouist  religion  has  had  no 
little  influence  upon  them,  although  they  are  professedly 
Confucianists,  and  should  not,  as  such,  give  their  adhesion 
to  the  tales  of  the  Taouists. 

Among  the  liturgical  works  used  by  the  priests  of  Taou, 
one  of  the  commonest  consists  of  prayers  to  Tow-moo,  a 
female  divinity  supposed  to  reside  in  the  Great  Bear.  A 
part  of  the  same  constellation  is  worshipped  under  the 
name  Kwei-sing.  A  small  temple  is  erected  to  this  deity 
on  the  east  side  of  the  entrance  to  Confucian  temples,  and 
he  is  regarded  as  being,  like  Wen-chang,  favourable  to 
literature.  The  word  Kwei,  in  its  written  form,  is  a  com- 
pound character.  Its  component  parts  are  two  other 
characters,  liwci,  "demon,"  on  the  left,  and  tow,  the  four 
stars  forming  a  trapezium  in  the  Great  Bear  (so  named 
from  a  measuring  vessel  having  that  shape),  on  the  right. 
A  native  writer,  still  living  at  Soochow,  attempts  to  show 
that  the  whole  story  of  the  gods  has  sprung  entirely  out  of 
the  human  imagination.  One  of  the  proofs  that  he  adduces 
is  the  pictorial  representation  usually  given  of  the  divinity 
Kwei-sing.  A  demon-like  personage  is  seen  kicking  with 
his  foot  the  measuring  vessel  called  tow.  This  mode  of 
portraying  the  divinity  in  question  was  suggested  solely 
by  the  meaning  that  happened  to  belong  to  the  component 
parts  of  the  character  Kwei,  and  which  were  arbitrarily 
assigned  many  centuries  before  without  any  bearing  on 
mythology.  He  very  justly  brings  forward  this  circum- 
stance as  evidence  that  popular  notions  respecting  this 
divinity  had  their  source  in  the  human  imagination. 

One  of  the  twenty-eight  constellations  of  the  Chinese 
zodiac  consists  of  six  stars  curved  like  a  bow.  It  is  called 
Chang,  to  draw  a  how.  Near  it  is  a  cluster  of  seven  stars, 
known  as  "  the  heavenly  dog."  Chang,  one  of  the  genii 
of  Taouist  romance,  is  believed  to  be  identical  with  the 
star  cluster  of  the  same  name,  and  he  is  represented  by 
painters  and  idol-makers  with  a  bow  in  his  hands, 
shooting  the  heavenly  dog.     The  names  of  the  constella- 


VIEW  OF  A  CHAPOO  SCHOOLMASTER.  109 

tions  are  much  older  than  the  mythological  legends,  of 
which  the  story  of  this  personage  is  one.  So  that  if  any 
of  the  animal  or  human  forms  pictured  on  our  celestial 
globes  as  aids  to  the  memory  in  recognising  the  stars  were 
to  be  appointed  by  priestly  authority  to  be  adored  as  gods, 
such  an  act  would  be  a  parallel  one  to  what  the  Chinese 
Taouists  have  done.  This  gross  and  infatuated  materialism 
has  flourished  in  a  country  that  has  possessed  for  ages  a 
cultivated  literature  and  a  highly-developed  civilisation,  a 
good  moral  code,  and  a  long  succession  of  philosophers  and 
learned  men.  The  mythology  of  which  we  are  speaking 
has  been  greatly  expanded  during  modern  times  in  China, 
showing  that  nothing  can  be  hoped  for  the  improvement 
of  that  country  in  the  knowledge  of  God  unless  Chris- 
tianity be  introduced  among  its  inhabitants.  At  the 
period  when  its  intellectual  light  has  been  at  the  highest 
point,  the  most  extravagant  additions  have  been  made  to 
its  legendary  mythology.  At  times  when  the  arts  and 
literature  were  most  prosperous,  superstition  increased  its 
proportions  along  with  them,  and  spread  amongst  the 
population  a  multitude  of  absurd  fancies,  wild  in  their 
origin,  and  mischievous  in  their  effects. 

I  met,  on  one  occasion,  a  schoolmaster  from  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Chapoo.  He  asked  if  I  had  any  books  to  give 
away  on  astronomy  and  geography.  Such  works  are 
eagerly  desired  by  all  members  of  the  literary  class.  They 
feel  a  high  respect  for  the  knowledge  Western  men  have 
on  these  subjects,  the  result  of  the  information  given  them 
by  the  early  Eoman  Catholic  missionaries  on  these  sciences. 
The  inquiry  was  put  to  him — Who  is  the  Lord  of  heaven 
and  earth  ?  He  replied  that  he  knew  none  but  the  pole- 
star,  called  in  the  Chinese  language  Teen-hwang-ta-te — 
the  greed  imperial  ruler  of  heaven.  It  was  stated  to  liim 
that  it  was  a  matter  very  much  to  be  regretted  that  he 
should  hold  such  views  as  this  of  the  Supreme  Being. 
When  he  was  reminded  of  passages  in  the  Confucian 
classics  which  speak  of  God  as  the  ruler  of  heaven,  inde- 


no  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

pendent  of  the  visible  creation,  he  admitted  that  he  might 
be  wrong.  In  the  case  of  this  man  it  is  sufficiently  evi- 
dent that  the  notion  of  an  independent,  personal,  spiritual 
Being,  presiding  over  the  universe,  and  distinct  from  it, 
had  given  place  to  a  low,  materialised  conception  of  God. 

The  degraded  notion  that  the  Taouists  have  of  God  has 
allowed  of  tlieir  representing  creation  as  effected  by  a 
material  agency,  instead  of  describing  it  as  the  work  of 
God.  I  once  asked  a  Taouist  priest  to  show  me  some  of 
his  charms.  They  are  pieces  of  paper  bearing  certain 
unintelligible  marks.  He  declined  to  do  so,  on  the  ground 
that  we  do  not  believe  in  their  efficacy.  Their  use  was, 
he  said,  to  frighten  away  demons,  who  did  not  dare  to 
approach  so  wise  and  holy  a  divinity  as  the  god  of  the 
temple,  in  one  of  the  apartments  of  which  we  stood.  The 
charms  were  sold  in  his  name,  and  his  protection  was 
guaranteed  to  those  who  purchased  them.  It  was  observed 
to  him  that  it  was  a  groundless  fancy  to  expect  protection 
from  such  a  god  as  this,  and  that  our  faith  should  be 
placed  upon  God  the  creator  of  all  things.  This  priest 
denied  that  creation  was  God's  act,  and  maintained  that 
it  was  the  act  of  a  material  agent  which  he  called  Ke — a 
word  meaning  a  very  jpure,  form  of  matter,  vapour.  Ke,  he 
said,  was  before  God,  and  was  the  creator  of  all  things. 
Its  purer  part  rose  and  formed  heaven,  while  its  grosser 
portion  became  earth.  He  was  reminded  that  Ke  was  a 
visible,  material  substance,  capable  of  separation  into  parts, 
and  it  must  therefore  itself  be  a  created  thing.  He  ad- 
mitted its  material  character,  but  denied  the  conclusion 
attempted  to  be  derived  from  that  circumstance.  It  was 
explained  to  him  further,  that  we  in  the  West  were 
accustomed  to  think  that  the  immaterial  could  produce 
the  material  and  visible,  but  the  material  could  not  be 
the  parent  of  the  immaterial  and  invisible.  We  can  con- 
ceive of  the  world  of  matter  being  created  by  God,  a 
spiritual  being ;  but  we  cannot  conceive  of  matter  becom- 
ing mind  or  soul  by  any  process  of  creation  or  develop- 


TA  O  VIST  BELIEF  IN  GENII.  1 1  t 

ment.     He  proceeded  to  deny  that  God  was  invisible ;  and 
the  conversation  diverged  to  other  subjects. 

Before  Buddhism  came  into  China,  and  produced  a  very- 
decided  influence  on  Taouist  ideas,  the  mythology  of  this 
latter  religion  was  somewhat  scanty.  Besides  the  doctrine 
of  Shang-te,  and  of  the  presiding  spirits  that  dwell  in  vari- 
ous parts  of  nature,  belonging  to  the  Confucian  religion, 
the  ancient  Chinese  believed  in  a  race  of  genii.  They  were 
men  supposed  to  have  attained  to  the  honours  of  deity  by 
their  virtues.  Some  were  fabulous  persons,  and  others 
historical.  At  the  time  of  Tsin-she-hwang,  the  builder  of 
the  Great  Wall,  about  two  centuries  before  Christ,  many 
romantic  stories  were  current  of  immortal  men  inhabiting 
islands  in  the  Pacific  Ocean.  It  was  supposed  that,  in 
these  imaginary  islands,  they  found  the  herb  of  immortality 
gTowing,  and  that  it  gave  them  exemption  from  the  lot  of 
common  men.  That  Emperor  determined  to  go  in  search 
of  these  islands,  but  some  untoward  event  always  prevented 
him.  One  expedition  that  sailed  never  returned,  and  it 
was  reported  that  those  engaged  in  it  had  reached  the 
islands,  but  were  unwilling  to  come  back,  lest  they  should 
lose  the  treasure  of  immortality,  so  that  their  countrymen 
failed  to  secure  the  benefit  of  their  discovery.  The  genii 
of  mountains  and  of  such  islands  are  terrestrial  genii. 
There  is  a  higher  class,  called  the  celestial  genii.  They 
are  supposed  to  ascend  to  heaven  and  reside  there.  The 
abodes  occupied  by  the  celestial  genii  are  among  the  stars, 
or,  higher  yet,  in  the  region  of  pure  rest.  In  carrying  out 
the  conceptions  of  powerful  beings  inhabiting  heaven  as 
thus  suggested,  the  Taouists  obtained  great  help  from  the 
Buddhists.  They  imagined  various  regions  in  the  sky, 
some\vhat  resembling  the  successive  heavens  of  the  Hin- 
doos, and  made  them  the  residences  of  the  new  divinities 
that  they  chose  to  add  to  their  pantheon.  In  the  plan  of 
a  complete  Taouist  temple,  provision  is  made  for  represent- 
ing all  the  chief  features  of  the  modern  mythology  of  that 
religion.      The  apartments  devoted  to  the   superior  and 


112  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

inferior  divinities  correspond  to  the  respective  heavens  in 
which  they  reside,  and  a  certain  number  of  the  gods  are 
selected  for  representation  as  specimens  of  the  whole. 
Among  these  are  some  that  resemble  the  Buddhas  and 
Bodhisattwas  of  the  sister  religion,  while  others  derive  their 
origin  from  the  ancient  Chinese  tales  of  hermits  and  genii. 
There  are  two  elements,  then,  in  the  formation  of  their 
mythology  —  the  primitive  Chinese  and  the  Buddhistic. 
The  former — that  of  indigenous  origin — has  perpetuated 
the  recollection  of  many  fabulous  and  semi-fabulous  indi- 
viduals belonging  to  the  early  centuries  of  the  nation's 
history.  Among  them  are  not  a  few  hermits  and  alche- 
mists, men  of  rigid  morals,  and  having  a  fondness  for 
solitude,  seekers  of  the  plant  that  confers  immortality,  and 
students  of  the  hidden  lore  of  mystics  and  magicians. 
Such  beings  are  called  Seen-jin.  They  form  the  mass  of 
the  inhabitants  of  heaven.  The  principal  divinities  are, 
however,  Buddhistic.  To  Buddha  correspond  Tcen-tsun 
and  Te,  and  to  Bodhisattwa  Tsoo.  Yuh-hwaug-shang-te  is 
the  highest  of  all  personages  except  the  San-tsing.  In  his 
character  as  lord  of  the  world  and  saviour  of  men  he  in 
part  resembles  Buddha.  If  this  Shang-te  is  Buddha  active, 
the  San-tsing,  or  "  three  pure  ones,"  are  Buddha  contem- 
plative. They  meditate  on  truth  and  doctrine,  and  com- 
municate their  feelings  and  ideas  to  men  in  language  such 
as  they  can  understand;  one  of  the  "  three  pure  ones  "  is 
Laou-keun,  the  founder  of  the  Taouist  religion,  in  a  deified 
form.  The  "three  pure  ones"  are  the  Taouist  trinity;  as 
the  "  San-she  Joo-lae,"  the  "  Tathagatha  of  the  three  ages," 
are  the  Buddhist  trinity.  In  each  case  the  trinity  is  a 
threefold  manifestation  of  one  historical  person.  That 
historical  person  is,  in  both  instances,  a  man  deified  by  his 
intellectual  and  moral  advancement,  bringing  him  at  last 
to  the  summit  of  all  excellence  and  power.  Shakyamuni 
was  represented  by  the  Northern  Buddhists  in  many  differ- 
ent forms.  One  of  the  most  common  is  the  Buddha  past, 
present,  and  to  come.     Three  immense  images  nearly  alike 


THE  TAOUIST  TRINITY.  113 

in  form  are  thus  designated.  They  are  usually  found  in 
the  larger  Chinese  temples,  where  it  is  desired  to  have  idols 
of  an  imposing  appearance.  Little,  however,  is  said  of  this 
trinity  in  the  Buddhist  books.  Perhaps  the  reason  why  it 
has  become  common  is  not  on  account  of  any  doctrinal 
importance  belonging  to  this  trinal  manifestation  of  Buddha, 
but  rather  because  an  air  of  grandeur  is  thus  imparted 
to  the  appearance  of  Buddha  in  the  hall  where  he  is 
worshipped. 

Be  this  as  it  may,  the  Taouists  have  imitated  the  Bud- 
dhists in  forming  a  trinity  having  its  basis  in  the  historical 
founder  of  their  religion.  Laou-keun,  the  philosopher  thus 
distinguished,  is  styled,  when  represented  as  divine,  the 
third  person  in  this  trinity.  They  say,  indeed,  that  he  was, 
in  his  human  form,  an  incarnation  of  the  third  person  in 
the  San-tsing,  wishing  to  make  it  appear  that  this  trinity 
of  divine  persons,  which  is  altogether  of  modern  invention, 
is  previous  in  time  to  Laou-keun,  and  in  fact  eternal. 

The  connection  that  the  Taouist  trinity  has  with  the 
world  is,  like  that  of  Buddha,  one  of  instruction  and  bene- 
volent interference  for  the  good  of  mankind.  The  physical 
superintendence  of  the  world  is  left  to  inferior  divinities. 
In  the  view  of  both  these  religions,  contemplation  is  above 
action.  As  a  sage  is  esteemed  a  higher  character  than  a 
warrior,  so  a  divinity  in  the  intellectual  sphere  is  greater 
than  a  divinity  in  the  physical.  To  save  by  teaching  is 
greater  than  to  save  by  power.  This  idea  is  seen  very 
prominently  in  the  grades  of  divinities  in  the  Taouist 
mythology,  as  it  is  also  in  those  of  the  Buddhist.  The 
Fuh  and  the  Poosa  of  the  Hindoo  religion  are  intellectual 
gods,  and  their  sphere  is  regarded  as  higher  and  nobler  than 
that  of  Brahma  and  Shakra,  who  rule  rather  in  the  physi- 
cal universe.  So  in  Taouism,  the  San-tsing  are  instructors, 
while  Shang-te  and  the  star-gods,  the  medical  divinities, 
the  gods  of  the  elements  and  the  deified  hermits,  are  the 
rulers  of  the  physical  universe. 

The  Taouists  take  the  Shang-te  of  the  Confucian  classics 
10  H 


114  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

to  be  identical  witli  Yuh-liwang-sliang-te,  who  is  the  chief 
god  in  their  pantheon,  excepting  only  the  San-tsing.  They 
assign  to  him  the  control  of  the  physical  universe,  but  they 
also  make  him  an  instructor  of  mankind.  To  connect  him 
with  the  human  race  they  have  identified  him  with  an 
ancestor  of  the  hereditary  hierarch  of  their  religion,  bearing 
the  family  name  Chang.  This  hereditary  head  of  the 
Taouist  religion  resides  in  the  province  of  Keang-se,  on  the 
Dragon  and  Tiger  mountain.  In  humanising  the  Shang-te 
of  the  classics,  a  birthday,  as  well  as  a  name,  has  been 
assigned  to  him.  His  birthday  is  kept  on  the  ninth  of  the 
first  month.  Very  many  spirits  are  employed  by  him  in 
the  control  of  the  world.  Towards  the  end  of  each  year, 
these  subordinate  spirits,  among  them  the  kitchen-god,  who 
have  been  engaged  through  the  year  in  watching  the 
conduct  of  mankind,  go  up  to  the  palace  of  Yuh-hwang- 
shang-te  in  heaven,  and  present  their  report.  After  a 
certain  number  of  days  they  descend  again,  and  resume 
their  office  as  inspectors  of  the  moral  behaviour  of  men. 

Among  the  star-gods  subordinate  to  the  supreme  deity 
of  the  physical  universe  just  referred  to,  is  a  trinity  known 
as  the  gods  of  happiness,  rank,  and  old  age.  Three  stars, 
or  star-gods,  thus  designated,  are  among  the  commonest 
subjects  for  carving  and  painting  in  China. 

Another  favourite  divinity  is  Tsae-shin,  who  presides 
over  riches.  He  is  identified  with  an  ancient  Chinese 
statesman,  and  is  almost  universally  worshipped  by  those 
who  engage  in  commercial  pursuits.  The  extent  of  his 
worship  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  instances  of  the 
prevalence  of  superstition  among  the  class  of  tradesmen 
and  merchants.  They  trace  their  profits  and  losses  in 
trade  to  the  interference  of  this  divinity.  It  is  their 
faith  in  this  god  that  has  led  to  the  erection  of  so  many 
temples  to  his  honour  in  Chinese  towns  and  cities. 

There  is  a  very  well-known  triad  of  subordinate  divi- 
nities, called  San-kwan,  the  "  three  rulers."  They  preside 
over  heaven,  earth,  and  water,  and  it  is  said  of  them,  in 


THE  GOD  OF  THUlYDER.  115 

that  part  of  the  daily  liturgical  prayers  AA'liich  refers  to 
them,  that  they  are  the  three  holy  men  who  form  a  unity, 
and  that  they  send  down  good  and  ill  fortune  on  men  and 
save  the  lost.  In  their  collective  unity  they  are  called  the 
three  rulers  who  constitute  one  great  god,  San-kwan-ta-te. 

The  gods  having  invocations  addressed  to  them  in  the 
Taouist  prayer-books  include  several  of  a  rank  intermediate 
between  Yuh-hwang-shang-te  and  San-kwan.  They  are 
the  spirit  of  the  earth,  the  north  pole-star,  the  lord  of  the 
stars,  some  other  star-gods,  the  ruler  of  thunder,  the  Bud- 
dhist divinity  Kwan-yin,  and  the  spirits  of  the  sun  and  moon. 

The  following  is  a  specimen  of  the  attributes  of  these 
personages.  The  "father  of  thunder"  is  represented  as 
passing  through  many  metamorphoses  and  filling  all 
regions  with  his  assumed  forms.  While  he  discourses  on 
doctrine  his  foot  rests  on  nine  beautiful  birds.  Thirty-six 
generals  w^ait  on  him  for  orders.  A  certain  celebrated 
book  of  instruction  is  said  to  have  emanated  from  him. 
His  commands  are  swift  as  winds  and  fire.  He  overcomes 
demons  by  the  power  of  his  wisdom,  and  he  is  the  father 
and  teacher  of  all  living  beings. 

This  description  of  the  god  of  thunder  is  strongly  tinged 
with  a  Buddhist  colouring,  and  the  same  is  observable  in 
the  characteristics  of  the  other  Taouist  divinities.  The 
style  in  which  the  books  of  prayers  are  written  is  thoroughly 
Buddhist.  The  same  view  is  taken  of  the  universe,  of  the 
wants  of  men,  and  of  the  interference  of  divine  persons  to 
remove  them,  as  in  that  religion.  Throughout  there  is  a 
slavish  adherence  to  the  foreign  model.  China  felt  reli- 
gious wants,  which  it  could  not  supply  from  its  own  think- 
ing. The  Chinese  had  the  notion  of  Deity,  but  could  not 
unaided  bring  that  notion  into  a  form  adapted  for  popular 
worship.  When  the  Buddhist  system  arrived  among  them, 
they  found  in  it  a  model  that  they  could  conveniently  copy. 
The  Chinese  and  the  Hindoo  mythology  form  an  ill-assorted 
mixture.  The  additions  made  by  the  Taouists  from  this 
foreign  source  to  their  system  fit  it  but  clumsily,  and  the 


ii6  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

proof  thus  becomes  so  much,  the  clearer  that  men  will  have 
gods  to  adore  and  some  form  of  worship,  and  that  however 
strong  this  craving,  it  cannot  be  met  by  the  unassisted 
intellect.  There  must  be  the  revelation  of  the  true  God 
in  His  Son  Jesus  Christ,  before  the  desire  men  feel  to  know 
and  adore  the  Divine  can  be  satisfied. 

A  word  should  be  added  respecting  the  State  gods  of 
China.  They  are  very  numerous;  each  city  has  its  patron 
deity.  There  are  also  tutelar  gods  to  smaller  towns.  All 
such  divinities  are  appointed  by  the  State.  Brave  and 
loyal  officers  of  Government,  and  men  distinguished  for 
public  and  private  virtues,  are  honoured  with  a  charge  of 
this  kind. 

Among  the  most  eminent  of  the  State  gods  is  Kwan-te, 
the  god  of  war.  By  a  recent  decree  of  the  last  Emperor 
but  one,  he  has  been  raised  to  the  same  rank  with  Confu- 
cius, who  was  before  tliis  the  occupant  of  the  first  place  in 
the  State  pantheon  of  canonised  sages  and  great  men. 

Taouist  priests  are  appointed  to  take  charge  of  the 
temples  of  the  State  gods,  but  their  worship  does  not  con- 
stitute a  principal  part  of  the  liturgical  forms  of  the  Taouist 
religion.  These  gods  are  admitted  into  the  Taouist  mytho- 
logy as  divinities  more  or  less  elevated  in  rank,  and  the 
worship  of  each  is  performed  with  attention  only  in  the 
locality  over  which  he  presides.  Temples  to  the  god  of 
war  are,  however,  found  everywhere. 

It  would  have  been  interesting  to  inquire  how  far  the 
views  of  the  Taouists  on  a  Divine  Trinity  are  merely  the 
result  of  the  thinking  faculties,  or  how  far  they  should  be 
regarded  as  traditional  from  the  early  ages  of  our  race ;  or, 
further,  what  reason  there  is  to  consider  them  a  truth  in 
natural  religion,  at  which,  in  some  way,  the  human  mind 
must,  in  its  searchings,  ultimately  arrive.  But  tliis  inquiry 
may  be  left  in  the  hands  of  writers  of  theological  books, 
and  especially  of  those  students,  rapidly  increasing  in 
number,  who  are  engaged  in  investigating  the  religions  of 
the  world. 


(  117  ) 


CHAPTER     X. 

MORALITY. 

All  the  world  knows  that  the  Chinese  have  a  system  of 
morality  which,  in  theory,  is  remarkably  pure.     They  may 
not  be  a  peculiarly  moral  people  when  compared  with  the 
rest  of  mankind,  but  they  have  a  better  system  of  human 
duty  than  almost  any  other  heathen  nation,  ancient  or 
modern.      Their  sages   have  transmitted  a  multitude  of 
excellent  maxims,  and  have  reasoned  on  moral  questions, 
not  seldom,  very  satisfactorily.     Duty  and  morality  are 
what  every  man  can  understand.     To  inculcate  them  is  an 
easy  task,  because  the  appeal  is  made  immediately  to  the 
conscience  which  God  has  bestowed  upon  all  men.     We 
cannot  wonder  that  in  Confucianism  there  should  be  found 
a  good  system  of  morality.      Conscience   and   reflection 
guide  at  once  to  the  discovery  of  it.     The  Jesuit  mission- 
aries, when  they  arrived  in  China,  in  the  reign  of  our 
Queen  Elizabeth,  were  charmed  with  the  excellent  doc- 
trines of  Confucius.     They  found  there  the  Golden  Paile 
of  our  Saviour  in  a  slightly  different  form.     The  precept 
of  Confucius  was,  "  Do  not  to  others  what  you  would  not 
that  they  should  do  to  you."      They  also  found  in  the 
common  conversation  of  the  people  antithetical  sentences 
and  fragments  of  familiar  poetry,  exhorting  to  virtue  and 
warning  against  vice.     They  are  in  daily  use  among  all 
classes,  from  the  rich  and  educated  to  the  labouring  poor. 
For  example: — "Among  the  hundred  virtues,  filial  piety 
is  the  chief     Out  of  ten  thousand  crimes,  adultery  is  the 
worst."     "  Fidelity,  filial  piety,  chastity,  and  uprightness, 
diffuse  fragrance  through  a  hundred  generations."     They 


1 1 8  RELIGION  IN  CHINA . 

spread  through  Europe  the  fame  of  the  Chinese  sages  as 
excellent  instructors  in  morality.  Eicci  thought  that  very 
many  of  them  held  views  so  good,  that  he  felt  no  doubt 
they  would  be  saved  by  the  mercy  of  God  in  the  next  life. 
He  says  this  in  the  rare  and  very  interesting  work,  "  De 
Christiana  Expeditione  ad  Sinas,"  from  which  M.  Hue  has 
drawn  much  of  the  materials  for  his  history  of  Christianity 
in  China. 

What  is  the  Confucian  moraKty  on  which  such  high 
encomiums  have  been  pronounced  ?  A  follower  of  that 
sage  would  probably  reply  to  this  question  by  referring  to 
the  San-kang-woo-chang,  "  the  three  relations  and  the  five 
constant  virtues."  The  three  relations,  to  which  belong 
corresponding  duties,  are  those  of  prince  and  subject, 
father  and  son,  and  husband  and  wife ;  the  five  virtues, 
whose  obligation  is  constant  and  universal,  are  benevo- 
lence, uprightness,  politeness,  knowledge,  and  faithfulness. 
Politeness  includes,  in  the  Chinese  meaning  of  the  word, 
compliance  with  all  social  and  public  customs  transmitted 
by  wise  men  and  good  kings.  The  native  term  for  know- 
ledge means  rather  the  prudence  gained  by  knowledge. 
The  word  for  faithfulness  means  both  to  be  trustworthy, 
and  also  to  trust  to,  and  refers  chiefly  to  friendship. 

According  to  the  Confucian  school,  the  universal  obliga- 
tion to  love  mankind  must  be  carefully  limited  and  regu- 
lated by  the  social  relations.  It  made  a  strong  resistance 
on  this  ground  to  a  socialist  theory  propounded  by  Mih- 
tsze,  a  Chinese  philosopher  who  lived  in  the  interval 
between  Confucius  and  Mencius.  The  form  that  Con- 
fucianism, the  orthodox  Chinese  morality,  has  come  to 
assume  has  been  constantly  modified  by  controversy. 
This  renders  the  historical  study  of  it  more  interesting 
than  it  otherwise  would  be.  Translations  hitherto  made  of 
the  Confucian  books  are  somewhat  dull,  partly  because  the 
piquancy  of  the  native  phraseology  is  lost  by  transference 
to  a  foreign  tongue,  and  in  part  also  from  the  want  of 
supplemental  information  on  the  important  philosophical 


THE  DOCTRINE  OF  UNIVERSAL  LOVE.  119 

discussions  that  have  taken  place  between  rival  sects,  both 
contemporary  with  and  subsequent  to  the  time  when  the 
Chinese  classics  were  written.^  Mih-tsze  laid  stress  on 
the  circumstance  that  love  to  mankind  ought  to  be  univer- 
sal and  undistinguishing.  He  also  founded  the  obligation 
to  love  on  utilitarianism.  He  said,  that  if  we  all  loved 
every  other  man  in  a  perfectly  undistinguishing  manner, 
there  would  be  no  wars  and  no  robbery.  It  is  a  remark- 
able fact  that  a  Chinese  writer  three  or  four  centuries 
before  the  Christian  era  should  have  these  views.  They 
are  contained  in  works  of  the  author  which  are  partly 
spurious  in  their  present  form,  but  which  are  frequently 
cited  and  commented  on  in  the  writings  of  authors  belong- 
ing to  that  age.  The  followers  of  Confucius  made  an 
energetic  opposition  to  the  doctrines  of  this  philosopher, 
and  insisted,  as  writers  of  the  school  of  Butler  might  do 
against  Beutham,  and  Paley,  and  the  socialists,  that  the 
consciousness  of  right  and  wrong  implanted  by  Heaven  in 
the  human  breast  must  be  made  judge  in  matters  of  duty, 
and  that  the  distinctions  in  the  social  commonwealth, 
arising  from  the  political  and  domestic  relations  of  men 
to  each  other,  must  be  carefully  preserved. 

A  striking  resemblance  betw^een  the  discussions  on 
moral  philosophy  in  China  and  in  Europe  is  found  in  the 
ambiguity  attaching  to  the  word  nature, — in  Chinese  sing. 
Bishop  Butler  says,  when  speaking  of  the  ancient  moralists 
of  Europe,  that  they  defined  virtue  as  consisting  in  the 
following  of  our  nature,  and  vice  as  deviating  from  it. 
He  defended  this  doctrine,  and  guarded  it  from  miscon- 
struction by  pointing  out  the  different  meanings  of  the 
word  nature.  The  Confucianists  have  had  to  do  the  same 
in  order  to  protect  their  orthodox  doctrine  of  duty  and 
conscience  from  abuse.     One  ancient  school  held  that  we 

1  We  may  expect  a  new  translation  insertion  in  Dr.  James  Legge's  transla- 

soon  from  an  able  scholar,  long  resi-  tion  of  Mencius  of  considerable  por- 

dent  in  China,   of  a  much  superior  tious   of   the   \vritings   on  ethics    of 

kind  to  any  we  have  had.     Much  has  Seun-tsze,  Mih-tsze,  and  Han-yii. 
been  done  to  meet  this  want  by  the 


120  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

must  follow  our  appetites,  since  they  were  natural  to  us. 
Another  sect  maintained  that  we  must  not  follow  our 
nature,  our  nature  being  bad.  The  orthodox  party  said 
our  nature  is  good.  The  cause  of  our  wrong-doing  is  in 
the  passions  that  are  born  with  us,  and  in  superinduced 
habits. 

When  the  European  reader  takes  in  hand  the  little 
"Three  Character  Classic,"  that  forms  the  first  reading- 
book  in  Chinese  day-schools,  he  finds  in  the  opening 
sentence  the  doctrine  broadly  stated,  that  man  has  origin- 
ally a  good  moral  nature — jin-che-choo-sing-pun-shen  — 
and  he  thinks  he  sees  in  it  a  direct  contradiction  of  the 
Christian  doctrine  of  man's  original  depravity.  If  no 
friend  to  Christian  theology,  he  rejoices  in  the  fact ;  if  he 
be  a  friend  to  that  theology,  he  will  be  in  danger  of  pro- 
nouncing a  hasty  condemnation  on  the  author  of  the 
sentence  just  quoted.  It  belongs  to  Mencius,  not  Con- 
fucius, and  was  introduced  by  him  into  the  orthodox 
system  to  serve  as  a  barrier  against  the  tenet  of  Seun-tsze, 
that  the  nature  of  man  is  bad.  Many  centuries  after,  dur- 
ing tlie  time  of  our  Middle  Ages,  discussions  on  the  moral 
nature  of  man  led  to  the  adoption  of  new  phraseology  by 
the  orthodox  party.  They  said  that  there  is  a  principle  that 
leads  men  to  do  wrong,  together  with  a  principle  leading 
them  to  do  right,  which  two  principles  grow  up  together. 
The  good  nature  is  bestowed  originally  by  Heaven,  as  was 
always  held  by  the  Confucianists.  The  bad  came  from 
the  union  of  the  soul  with  matter,  and  the  existence  of  the 
passions.  This  explanation  should  be  remembered  before 
the  Chinese  doctrine,  "  that  the  nature  of  man  is  good,"  is 
condemned.  If  we  say  that  the  good  principle,  sing, 
"  nature,"  or  le,  "  reason,"  is  the  moral  sense  or  conscience, 
and  the  evil  principle  original  depravity,  we  have  a  coin- 
cidence with  the  Christian  doctrine  of  which  we  should  not 
lose  siffht  on  account  of  certain  differences  in  nomenclature. 

The  tendencies  of  the  Confucian  morality  are  seen  in 
the   national  system   of  education,  in  which   the  moral 


EDUCATION.  121 

training  of  the  child's  mind  is  always  put  forward  as  the 
chief  element.  There  is  a  universal  system  of  seK-support- 
ing  day-school  education  in  that  country.  Every  parent 
who  has  a  few  pence  to  spare  in  the  month  will  educate 
his  child.  Teaching  is  the  regular  profession  of  the 
majority  of  the  literati,  that  is,  of  the  class  who  study  for 
academical  degrees.  The  course  of  instruction  includes 
the  reading  of  the  Four  Books,  and  the  Five  Classics,  the 
former  contaming  the  opinions  of  Confucius  and  Mencius, 
and  the  latter  the  ancient  books  as  collected  and  edited  by 
Confucius.  The  word  for  religion  in  Chinese  is  keaou,  and 
this  is  also  the  word  for  instruction.  The  idea  of  a  reHgion 
is  in  that  language  a  s^tem^  of  instruction.  The  highest 
character  known  in  that  country  is  that  of  an  instructor. 
The  gTcatness  of  Confucius  did  not  consist  in  philosophical 
depth  and  originality,  but  in  his  being  a  moral  teacher,  the 
most  sincere,  earnest,  comprehensive,  and  convincing  that 
the  Chinese  have  known.  When  the  boy  goes  to  school, 
he  becomes  a  disciple  of  Confucius.  If  he  is  not  educated, 
his  nature  will  go  wrong,  and  he  will  be  a  lawless  subject 
and  a  disobedient  son.  The  end  of  his  education  is  to 
show  him  what  virtue  is,  and  to  lead  him  to  it.  The  true 
disciple  of  Confucius  is  the  filial  son,  the  loyal  subject, 
and  the  kind  and  faithful  husband.  The  Government 
regards  the  education  of  the  people  as  essential  to  the 
welfare  of  the  State.  But  it  does  not  itself  educate  them 
by  supplying  free  instruction  to  the  poor.  It  appoints 
public  examiners  to  confer  degrees  and  other  rewards  on 
successful  candidates  for  such  distinctions,  and  in  this  way 
it  stimulates  and  influences  voluntary  education.  The 
Government  decides  what  books  shall  form  the  subject  of 
examination,  and  what  school  in  philosophy  and  morals 
shall  be  counted  orthodox.  Its  influence  on  the  state  of 
opinion  in  the  country  is  therefore  very  great.  More  than 
tliis,  the  Government  officers  are  chosen,  according  to  the 
traditional  theory,  for  their  virtues  as  well  as  for  their 
ability.     The  result  of  the  Confucian  education  is  sup- 


122  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

posed  to  be  the  formation  of  a  higlily  virtuous  character. 
The  Emj^eror  should  choose  his  ministers  from  "  the  wise,  the 
good,  the  consistent,  and  the  upright " — words  which  have 
predominantly  a  moral  rather  than  an  intellectual  meaning. 

On  the  whole,  the  Confucian  morality  appears  to  agree 
in  principle  with  Butler's  system,  while  the  chief  energy 
of  those  who  have  taught  it  has  been  expended  in  the 
endeavour  to  give  it  practical  eftect  on  the  individual,  the 
family,  and  the  nation. 

"What  has  the  result  been  on  the  Chinese  of  the  Con- 
fucian morality  ?  It  has  not  made  them  a  moral  people. 
Many  of  the  social  virtues  are  extensively  practised  among 
them,  but  they  exhibit  to  the  observer  a  lamentable  want 
of  moral  strength.  Commercial  integrity  and  speaking  the 
truth  are  far  less  common  among  them  than  in  Christian 
countries.  The  standard  of  principle  among  them  is  kept 
low  by  the  habits  of  the  people.  They  do  not  appear  to  feel 
ashamed  when  the  discovery  is  made  that  they  have  told 
an  untruth.  Falsehood  is  too  often  a  favourite  weapon  of 
diplomacy  in  social  life,  and  it  is  employed  without 
remorse.  There  is  a  palpable  absence  of  sensitiveness  on 
this  and  other  points  which  indicates  the  want  of  honour- 
able principle  in  the  national  character.  This  renders  the 
nation  feeble  in  war  and  open  to  new  temptations,  such  as, 
for  example,  the  use  of  opium.  Another  cause  of  moral 
weakness  among  the  Chinese  is  the  practice  of  polygamy, 
an  institution  which  operates  as  mischievously  on  them  as 
on  other  Oriental  nations.  The  state  of  opinion  is  such  in 
that  country,  that  in  some  cases  the  taking  of  a  second 
wife  during  the  lifetime  of  the  first  is  regarded  as  a  virtue. 
It  is,  for  instance,  the  duty  of  a  filial  son  to  marry  again  if 
^he  is  without  children  by  his  first  wife,  in  order  to  have 
sous  who  may  continue  the  sacrifices  at  the  ancestral  tomb. 
The  chief  evil  attending  domestic  slavery  in  Cliina  is,  that 
it  directly  promotes  concubinage  to  a  vast  extent.  Thus 
the  Confucian  morality,  though  good  in  theory,  has  not  been 
successful  in  bringing  the  nation  to  a  good  moral  condition. 


MORAL  EFFECTS  OF  BUDDHISM.  123 

Some  modern  writers  have  represented  the  influence  of 
Buddhism  on  the  moral  cliaracter  of  nations  as  extremely 
beneficial.     It  must  be  confessed  that  there  is  a  very  good 
aim  in  much  of  the  teaching  of  Shakyamuni  Buddha.     He 
says,  in  the  "  Book  of  Forty-two  Sections  : " — "  That  which 
causes  the  stupidity  and  delusion  of  man  is  love  and  the 
desires."     "  Man,  having  many  faults,  if  he  does  not  repent, 
but  allows  his  heart  to  be  at  rest,  will  find  sins  rushing 
upon  him  like  water  to  the  sea.     When  vice  has  thus 
become  more  powerful,  it  is  still  harder  than  before  to 
abandon  it.     If  a  bad  man  becomes  sensible  of  his  faults, 
abandons  them,  and  acts  virtuously,  his  sin  will  day  by 
day  diminish  and  be  destroyed,  tiU  he  obtains  full  en- 
lightenment."    The   disciple  of  Buddha   is  forbidden   to 
take  part  in  any  of  the  vices,  and  even  in  many  of  the 
lawful  enjoyments,  of  life.     He  must  not  take  wine,  nor 
enter  the  married  state,  nor  partake  of  animal  food.     He 
must  exercise  a  strict  watch  over  the  tongue.     Minute 
rules  for  self-government  are  given  to  aid  in  preventing 
the  disciple  from  every  kind  of  wrong-doing. 

Klaproth,  having  in  view  these  moral  precepts,  and  their 
effects  on  the  Asiatic  world,  speaks  of  Buddhism  as  being 
of  all  religions  next  to  Christianity  in  elevating  the  human 
race.  He  says,  "  The  wild  nomads  of  Central  Asia  have 
been  changed  by  it  into  amiable  and  virtuous  men,  and 
its  beneficent  influence  has  been  felt  even  in  Northern 
Siberia."  It  is  a  fact  that  Buddhism  has  been  spreading 
during  the  last  hundred  years  from  Mongolia,  where  it  has 
long  prevailed,  into  Siberia.  It  is  not  to  be  wondered  at 
that  a  literary  traveller  from  Germany  should  be  pleased 
to  find  Buddhism  extending  among  the  pagan  hordes  of 
Siberia.  He  would  naturally  be  gratified  to  discover  in 
those  dreary  regions  the  worship  of  personified  ideas,  and 
the  doctrine  of  the  non-existence  of  matter.  Perhaps  it  is 
rather  surprising  that  he  did  not  place  Buddhism  on  a 
higher  level  than  Christianity,  than  that  he  should  have 
viewed  it  only  as  second  to  it  in  point  of  excellence. 


124  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

I  feel  compelled,  however,  to  take  a  less  favourable  view 
than  this  sanguine  traveller  of  the  effects  of  Buddhism. 
So  far  from  deserving  to  be  compared  with  Christianity,  it 
must  be  regarded  as  quite  inferior  to  the  system  of  Confucius 
in  its  moral  influence. 

Good  has  resulted,  doubtless,  from  the  prominent  exhibi- 
tion made  by  Buddhism  of  the  danger  and  misery  of  vice, 
and  the  good  coming  from  self-restraint.  But  much  more 
benefit  would  have  been  derived  if  its  system  of  prohibi- 
tions had  rested  on  a  better  basis,  and  been  supported  by  a 
different  view  of  the  future  state.  The  crime  of  killing 
rests  chiefly  on  the  doctrine  of  metempsychosis,  which 
ascribes  the  same  immortal  soul  to  animals  that  it  does  to 
man.  Faithful  Buddhists  are  told  not  to  kill  the  least 
insect,  lest  in  so  doing  they  should  cause  death  to  some 
deceased  relative  or  ancestor  whose  soul  may  possibly 
animate  the  insect.  On  this  account  the  corresponding 
virtue  is  stated  to  be  fang  slung,  "  to  save  life,"  constantly 
applied  by  the  Buddhist  priests  and  common  people  of 
China  to  the  preservation  of  the  lives  of  animals.  The 
monks  are  vegetarians  for  the  same  reasons ;  they  abstain 
from  flesh,  not  only  to  bring  the  appetites  into  subjection, 
but  just  as  much  that  they  may  not  share  in  the  slaughter 
of  living  beings.  They  construct  reservoirs  of  water  near 
the  monasteries,  in  wliich  fish,  snakes,  tortoises,  and  small 
shell-fish,  brought  by  worshippers  of  Buddha,  are  placed  to 
preserve  them  from  death.  Goats  and  other  land  animals 
are  also  given  into  the  care  of  monks,  and  it  is  the  custom 
at  some  monasteries,  as  at  Teen-tung,  near  Ningpo,  to  feed 
the  neighbouring  birds  with  a  few  grains  of  rice  just  before 
the  morning  meal  commences.  I  witnessed  this  upon  one 
occasion.  All  the  monks  were  seated  at  the  tables  in  the 
refectory,  perfectly  silent,  each  with  his  bowl  of  rice  and 
greens  before  him.  One  of  them  rose,  after  a  sort  of  grace 
had  been  said,  and  brought  to  the  door  in  his  hand  a  few 
grains  of  rice.  These  he  placed  on  a  low  stone  pillar 
within  sight  of  the  birds  that  were  waiting  upon  the  roofs 


DEFICIENCIES  OF  BUDDHISM.  125 

of  tlie  adjoining  buildings,  and  knew  how  to  act  on  the 
occasion.  They  flew  down  at  once  with  great  goodwill 
to  receive  their  morning  meal. 

A  morality  which  is  so  much  connected  with  the  fables 
of  the  metempsychosis,  confounding  men  and  animals  as 
alike  possessing  immortal  souls  and  a  moral  nature,  should 
not  be  viewed  as  comparable  to  the  Confucian,  which  bases 
its  precepts  on  the  consciousness  of  right  and  wrong 
bestowed  by  Heaven  on  all  men.  If  the  Confucianists  do 
not  say  so  much  about  the  authority  of  God  as  we  could 
wish,  they  speak  at  least  of  the  authority  of  Heaven ;  and 
this  is  better  than  the  atheism  of  the  Buddhists.  The 
Buddhist  moral  precepts,  good  as  many  of  them  are,  would 
have  more  power,  and  the  true  character  of  sin  be  more 
felt  by  the  people,  if  the  authority  of  God  were  recognised 
by  them  as  the  great  reason  for  acting  well,  the  ground  of 
moral  oblisjation.  The  beneficent  influence  of  the  religion 
of  Buddha  would  have  been  much  greater,  had  it  made  the 
love  and  fear  of  God  the  first  of  all  the  virtues,  and  it 
might  then  have  been  brought  more  justifiably  into  com- 
parison with  Christianity.  The  sense  of  moral  obligation 
cannot  be  strong  in  a  system  which  consists  very  much  of 
subtle  intellectual  abstractions,  instead  of  strong  convictions 
of  the  realities  of  life.  In  asserting  the  falsity  of  many 
things  which  the  common  consciousness  of  mankind  de- 
clares to  be  truths — in  subordinating  God  to  Buddha,  and 
denying  that  He  is  the  creator  and  preserver  of  the  world 
— and  in  sinking  moral  law  to  a  position  lower  than  the 
teachings  of  the  human  Buddha,  this  system  loosens  the 
hold  of  moral  obligation  upon  man,  and  weakens  the 
dominion  of  conscience. 

We  have  in  Buddhism  some  of  the  strangest  facts  that 
have  ever  been  elicited  in  the  history  of  the  religions  of  the 
world.  We  have  seen  it  attempting  to  subvert  the  faith  of 
mankind  in  God,  placing  as  a  substitute  on  His  throne  a 
self-elevated,  self-purified  human  sage  called  Buddha,  and 
yet  it  could  not  prevent  this  personage  from  becoming  de- 


126  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

humanised,  clothed  with  divine  attributes,  and  so  coming 
to  be  worshij)ped  as  God  by  the  multitude  in  all  Buddhist 
countries.  So  far  is  this  the  case  in  Mongolia,  that  in  the 
translation  of  the  Bible  by  the  Protestant  missionaries  into 
the  language  of  that  country,  Buddha,  or,  as  it  is  called, 
Borhan,  is  used  for  God.  Now  we  see  a  fact  analogous  to 
this  in  the  department  of  morals.  The  Buddhists,  when 
they  subverted  the  foundations  of  moral  obligation  by 
denying  the  authority  of  Divine  law,  put  Buddha  in  its 
place.  Just  as  Buddha  in  his  personality  took  the  place 
of  God,  so  the  Buddha  of  the  heart  was  a  sort  of  substitute 
for  conscience.  They  say  man's  original  nature,  sing,  is 
good.  It  is  the  inborn  Buddha,  which  belongs  to  every- 
thing that  has  a  conscious  existence.  It  is  pure  and  holy, 
but  is  overshadowed  and  shut  out  from  view  by  the 
passions.  Let  every  one  search  for  it  with  introverted  eye, 
and  he  will  need  no  God  or  idol  to  adore,  nor  any  law  to 
control  him.  Let  him  uncover  the  veiled  Buddha  in  his 
own  heart.  He  will  then  become  his  own  teacher  and  his 
own  regenerator.  In  tliis  language  we  see  another  sacrifice, 
a  very  acceptable  one,  to  human  pride.  It  elevates  man 
by  refusing  to  recognise  the  need  of  Divine  agency  in 
restoring  men  to  a  holy  moral  life,  and  yet  it  is  a  testi- 
mony to  the  existence  of  the  inward  light  which  God  has 
placed  in  all  human  bosoms  to  guide  them  to  what  is  right 
and  good.  The  Buddhists,  when  they  employ  this  phraseo- 
logy, appeal  to  conscience  after  a  certain  indistinct  man- 
ner. They  go  wrong,  however,  as  the  Confucianists  also 
do,  in  identifying  it  with  natural  goodness ;  for  tliey  thus 
obscure  its  true  character  as  the  judge  of  right  and  wrong. 
To  tell  men  that  they  are  naturally  good,  is  to  assume  in 
compliment  to  human  nature  a  fact  difficult  to  be  proved, 
being  contradicted  by  all  history.  And  it  has  a  bad  effect 
on  human  character,  as  it  is  likely  to  induce  men  to  look 
leniently  on  their  own  vices,  and  to  regard  them  as  origin- 
ating from  without  and  not  from  within.  Whatever 
system  weakens  our  sensitiveness  to  moral  evil,  must  be  so 


BUDDHIST  KINDNESS  TO  ANIMALS.  127 

far  wrong.  The  feebleness  of  the  Buddhist  appeal  to  con- 
science is  further  increased  by  its  assigning  the  same 
essentially  good  nature  to  each  member  of  the  animal 
creation  that  it  does  to  man. 

We  cannot,  in  China,  see  the  whole  effect  of  Buddhism 
as  a  moral  system,  because  the  national  conscience  of  that 
country  is  much  more  Confucian  than  Buddhistic.  The 
worshippers  of  Buddha  and  Poosa  in  that  country  retain 
the  instructions  on  morality  of  their  own  sages ;  and  to 
this  Buddhism,  than  which  there  is  not  a  more  tolerant 
religion  in  the  world,  makes  no  objection.  So  also  it  is 
with  Taouism.  Both  systems  leave  the  people  in  posses- 
sion of  the  convictions  of  duty  produced  by  their  Confucian 
education.  But  we  notice  among  the  Chinese  certain 
popular  customs  and  opinions  that  can  scarcely  be  traced 
to  any  origin  except  Buddhism.  Carefulness  in  avoiding 
the  destruction  of  animal  life  is  certainly,  and  the  existence 
of  many  charitable  institutions  for  the  relief  of  the  poor, 
the  aged,  and  the  diseased,  is  probably,  to  be  ascribed  to 
Buddhism.  This  religion  has  made  the  Chinese  charitable, 
giving  rise  to  almsgiving  and  many  benevolent  institutions. 
There  is  usually  a  tinge  of  Buddhist  phraseology  in  the 
appeals  made  to  the  benevolent  for  the  various  charities 
and  schemes  for  public  convenience  so  common  in  that 
country.  But  the  strong  feeling,  for  which  the  Chinese 
are  noted,  of  duty  to  parents,  princes,  and  persons  in 
superior  station,  they  owe  rather  to  their  own  national 
system. 

Among  the  Taouists,  the  book  that  has  the  most  influence 
of  a  moral  kind  upon  the  people  is  perhaps  the  "  Kan-ying- 
peen,"  or  Book  on  Eetribution.  In  this  treatise  the  punish- 
ments threatened' for  sin  belong  to  the  present  life.  They 
are  losses,  diseases,  early  death,  and  every  sort  of  misfor- 
tune belonging  to  this  world.  The  rewards  of  virtue  are 
temporal  blessings,  and  in  certain  cases  immortality  and 
transference  to  the  abodes  of  the  genii.  But  while  the 
retribution  of  actions  is  Taouist,  the  actions  themselves  are 


128  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

characterised  as  right  and  wrong  entirely  l^y  the  Confucian 
standard. 

Thus  the  most  commanding  position  among  the  people 
is  held  by  the  system  of  the  Confucianists.  The  introduc- 
tion of  Hindoo  idolatry  with  a  peculiar  system  of  religion 
and  philosophy  has  not  lessened  the  power  of  the  old 
orthodox  moraUty  in  the  country.  The  great  struggle  of 
Christianity  must  be  with  the  religion  that  has  the  most 
power.  To  enter  on  a  conflict  with  Buddhism  and  Taouism 
will  be  found  an  easier  task  by  far  than  to  displace  Con- 
fucius from  the  faith  of  the  Chinese  as  a  faultless  model, 
and  the  greatest  and  holiest  of  all  moral  teachers. 


(    129   ) 


CHAPTER   XI. 

NOTIONS   ON   SIN   AND   REDEMPTION. 

When  contemplating  the  introduction  of  Christianity  into 
a  country,  it  is  important  to  know  what  opinions  its  in- 
habitants have  upon  sin  and  on  the  means  of  removing  it. 
The  consciousness  of  sin  and  the  felt  need  of  redemption 
undoubtedly  belong  to  men  who  have  no  knowledge  of 
religion  except  that  which  is  derived  from  the  light  of 
nature.  Some  illustrations  of  the  mode  in  which  the 
Chinese  feel  and  speak  on  these  subjects  will  now  be  pre- 
sented. 

Sometimes  there  are  answers  given  by  the  Chinese  to 
the  foreign  inquirer  of  such  a  nature  as  to  induce  a  doubt 
whether  they  have  any  sense  of  sin  whatever.  A  res]3ect- 
able  person  will  say,  "  I  have  no  sins,  and  why  should  I 
need  a  Saviour  ?  Your  doctrine  is  good,  but  it  is  not  im- 
portant for  me  to  attend  to  it.  Why  think  of  the  future 
life  ?  We  know  nothing  about  it.  I  discharge  my  duties. 
I  am  a  filial  son  and  a  loyal  citizen.  I  worship  Heaven 
and  Earth  on  the  first  and  fifteenth  of  every  month.  I 
have  nothing  to  reproach  myself  with." 

I  once  held  a  conversation  with  an  old  man  of  seventy. 
I  asked  him,  "  Will  you  become  a  believer  in  our  religion  ?" 
"  No,"  he  said,  "  I  am  too  old.  Here  is  my  son ;  he  is 
young  and  can  earn  money;  I  can  do  no  work,  and  should 
be  worth  notliing  to  you."  "  You  are  greatly  mistaken," 
he  was  told  in  reply,  "  in  supposing  that  to  believe  in  our 
religion  has  anything  to  do  with  earning  money.  It  is  for 
the  forgiveness  of  sins  that  we  advise  you  to  believe  in 
Jesus."     His  reply  was,  "  I  have  no  sins,     I  would  not 

10  T 


I30  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

commit  any  sin.  The  money  I  owe  to  any  one  I  give  him. 
If  I  see  a  neighbour's  cliild  fall,  I  run  and  help  him  up." 
It  was  remarked  to  him,  "  Every  one  is  a  sinner ;  are  you 
an  exception  ?"  To  this  he  answered,  "  When  my  little  girl 
had  nothing  to  eat,  and  I  possessed  but  fifteen  cash  (worth 
a  penny),  I  spent  them  in  buying  food  for  my  father." 

Such  an  appeal  as  tliis  to  acts  of  kindness  and  filial  piety 
formerly  done  would  appear  natural  and  perfectly  satis- 
factory to  large  numbers  of  this  man's  countrymen.  The 
tendency  of  the  Confucian  religion  is  to  render  those  who 
believe  in  it  unwilling  to  confess  that  sin  is  an  element  in 
their  daily  actions. 

It  would  not  be  fair  to  Confucianism  to  say  that  it 
denies  the  existence  of  moral  evil  in  the  conduct  of  every 
man,  for  the  Chinese  sage  said  on  one  occasion  that  "  he  had 
never  seen  a  truly  good  man."  But  he  thought  that  men 
have  the  power  to  be  virtuous  in  themselves,  and  that  their 
nature  leads  them  to  virtue.  He  teaches  that  "  by  their 
nature  they  approach  to  goodness,  but  habit  leads  them 
away  from  it."  By  nature — sing — he  meant  the  moral  sense 
bestowed  by  God  on  every  man.  It  is  what  we  call  con- 
science. A  Confucianist  writer  would,  however,  rather 
describe  it  as  a  bias  to  virtue.  Mencius,  who  is  only 
second  in  authority  to  Confucius  himself,  tried  to  give 
greater  distinctness  to  the  doctrine  of  his  predecessor  by 
prefixing  to  the  sentence  above  quoted  the  words,  "  Men 
originally  have  a  virtuous  nature." 

In  the  moral  code  of  the  Confucian  religion  duties  to 
God  are  little  mentioned,  while  great  stress  is  laid  on 
duties  to  princes  and  parents.  This  circumstance  could 
not  but  materially  affect  the  extent  and  depth  of  the  popu- 
lar consciousness  of  sin  in  Cliina.  I  remember  a  patient 
in  a  missionary  hospital  at  Shanghai.  He  remained  in  one 
of  the  wards  for  several  mouths  on  account  of  a  wounded 
foot.  He  could  not  read,  but  he  told  many  long  stories 
respecting  marvellous  appearances  of  Buddha  and  other 
divinities.    He  remarked,  when  he  heard  the  Divine  nature 


POPULAR  IDEAS  OF  SIN.  131 

of  Christ  referred  to,  that  Jesus  must  be  a  living  Buddha 
— the  same  designation  that  is  a^Dplied  to  the  Grand  Lama 
of  Tibet,  who  is  worshipped  as  an  incarnation  of  Buddha. 
He  frequently  expressed  uneasiness  of  mind  at  not  having 
fulfilled  his  filial  duty  to  his  deceased  father.  He  had 
neglected  to  make  provision  for  the  customary  funeral 
rites.  It  was  here  that  his  consciousness  of  sin  was 
centred.  The  sphere  of  religious  ideas  in  which  this 
man's  thoughts  revolved  was  Buddhist,  But,  though 
he  spoke  of  Buddha's  divine  power  and  providence,  he 
did  not  seem  to  feel  himself  a  sinner  against  Buddha. 
The  worshipper  of  Buddha  looks  to  him  for  protection  and 
instruction,  but  he  does  not  pray  to  him  for  forgiveness,  or 
confess  sin  to  him.  He  regards  Buddha  as  a  teacher  and 
Saviour,  but  not  as  a  governor  or  a  judge.  His  wounded 
foot  was  proof  to  him  of  sin ;  but  when  asked  what  sin 
it  was  of  which  he  felt  the  conviction,  his  thoughts  recurred 
to  the  moral  code  of  Confucius.  He  did  what  most  of  his 
countrymen  would  have  done  in  similar  circumstances. 
Instead  of  thinking  of  his  transgression  of  God's  law,  he 
recollected  an  omission  of  a  duty  to  his  parent.  Filial 
piety  is  the  most  strongly  enforced  of  all  virtues  in  his 
native  country.  It  has  overshadowed  the  duty  of  piety 
towards  God,  and  the  national  conscience  has  become  in 
consequence  comparatively  insensible  to  sin  as  committed 
against  the  Supreme  Governor  of  the  world. 

AU  calamities,  personal  or  national,  in  China  are  re- 
garded as  proofs  of  sin,  especially  such  as  are  sudden  and 
overwhelming.  A  man  struck  by  lightning  is  imme-  \ 
diately  condemned  by  the  united  voice  of  all  who  hear  of  \ 
the  catastrophe.  He  must  have  poisoned  some  one,  or 
have  intended  to  do  so,  or  he  must  have  committed  some 
other  great  crime.  If  lightning  strike  a  tree,  the  popular 
remark  made  from  one  to  another  will  be  that  there  must 
be  a  venomous  snake  concealed  at  its  roots,  and  that  on 
this  account  the  tree  was  singled  out  to  be  visited  with  the 
retribution  of  Heaven.     Blindness  and  other  bodily  cala- 


132  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

mities  are  also  ascribed  to  the  operation  of  a  retributory 
decree,  the  execution  of  wbicli  is  superintended  by  tbe 
ruling  power  in  heaven.  The  charge  of  personal  blame  is, 
however,  often  shifted  from  the  present  life  to  an  imaginary 
one  that  preceded  it.  The  Buddhist  doctrine  of  metem- 
psychosis is  conveniently  used  to  shelter  the  sufferer  by 
any  calamity  from  a  charge  of  guilt  made  too  direct  to 
be  pleasing  to  an  uneasy  conscience.  He  says  to  himself, 
"  I  must  have  committed  some  crime  in  a  former  state  of 
existence."  His  misfortune  does  not  permit  him  to  deny 
his  sin.  It  is  evidence  such  as  cannot  be  contradicted. 
But  he  finds  in  the  doctrine  of  a  former  life  the  means 
of  exculpating  himself,  so  far  as  the  present  world  is 
concerned. 

The  notion  of  duty  in  the  Confucian  system  being  the 
moral  bond  that  connects  man  with  man,  instead  of  that 
which  connects  man  with  God,  it  comes  to  resemble  the 
feeling  of  honour.  The  good  man  is  called  hiun-tsze,  "  the 
honourable  man,"  while  the  bad  man  is  termed  seaovr-jin, 
"  the  little  man."  Mean  and  dishonourable  actions  are  said 
to  be  done  by  the  latter,  while  all  acts  that  imply  self- 
respect  and  a  sense  of  honour  are  attributed  to  the  former. 
The  law  of  virtue  comes  to  be  much  more  nearly  identical 
with  the  law  of  honour  than  it  can  be  in  the  Christian 
moral  code,  because  so  little  is  said  by  Confucius  about 
our  duties  to  God.  Having  no  revelation  of  a  future  state 
to  make  use  of  in  the  inculcation  of  virtue,  the  Chinese 
system,  as  taught  by  native  authors  of  the  highest  reputa- 
tion, is  led  by  necessity  to  appeal  strongly  to  the  natural 
sense  of  right  and  wrong  imj^lanted  in  man.  Not  claiming 
the  inspired  authority  of  special  heavenly  messages  for  the 
duties  it  enjoins,  it  rests  upon  the  feeling  of  self-respect 
that  men  have.  The  man  who  always  acts  by  this  stan- 
dard is  the  ideal  of  virtue.  "  He  who  makes  use,"  says  a 
Confucian  author,  "  of  reason  and  right  to  control  the  pas- 
sions and  the  senses  is  an  honourable  man.  And,"  he 
continues,  "he  who  makes  use  of  the  passions  and  the 


BUDDHIST  TEACHING  ON  SIN.  133 

senses  to  resist  reason  and  right  is  a  '  small  man ; '  "  that 
is,  a  bad  man. 

The  moral  standard  being  of  this  sort,  sin  becomes  an 
act  which  robs  a  man  of  his  self-respect,  and  offends  his 
sense  of  right,  instead  of  being  regarded  as  a  transgression 
of  God's  law. 

There  is  another  view  of  sin  among  the  Chinese  which 
has  come  to  prevail  extensively  through  the  influence  of 
Buddhism.  To  destroy  animal  life  in  any  instance;  to 
partake  of  animal  food;  the  desecration  of  the  written 
character,  printed  or  manuscript,  whether  found  on  paper, 
porcelain,  or  carved  wood,  are  considered  to  be  sinful  in  a 
high  degree.  They  are  looked  upon  as  great  crimes,  and  it 
is  thought  that  they  will  surely  provoke  severe  punish- 
ment from  the  unseen  fate  that  controls  human  actions. 
Such  opinions  diminish  very  much  from  the  moral  weight 
that  attaches  to  the  word  sin,  in  Chinese  tsuy.  In  com- 
mon conversation  the  word  is  also  used  in  such  a  way 
as  to  detract  from  its  force.  The  phrase,  "  I  have  sinned 
against  you,"  containing  this  word  tsuy,  is  constantly 
employed  in  the  sense  of  "  I  beg  your  pardon,"  or,  "  You 
greatly  oblige  me." 

After  this  account  of  the  limitations  and  misapplications 
of  the  notion  of  sin  in  the  Confucian  religion,  it  will  not 
be  expected  that  it  can  furnish  a  clear  statement  of  any 
mode  by  which  sin  is  to  be  taken  away.  The  follower  of 
that  system  says,  as  the  Mohammedan  does,  sin  will  be 
forgiven  on  reformation,  and  that  reformation  is  the 
sinner's  own  act.  "  To  do  wrong  and  not  to  correct  the 
wrong,  that  is  to  do  wrong,"  is  a  favourite  quotation  from 
the  Chinese  classics.  If  we  do  virtuously,  say  the  disciples 
of  Confucius,  all  our  past  faults  will  be  forgiven.  The 
work  of  self-reformation  is  that  of  men  themselves.  Let 
those  who  have  sinned  against  Heaven  not  pray  for  pardon, 
or  offer  sacrifices  to  avert  deserved  punishment,  but  let 
them  show,  by  their  sincere  desire  to  be  virtuous,  the 
genuineness  of  their  repentance.     Confucius  said,  when  a 


134  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

man  has  sinned  against  Heaven,  there  is  no  need  to  pray. 
He  meant  that  there  was  no  advantage  gained  by  the 
prayers  and  offerings,  presented  at  the  period  in  which  he 
lived,  to  the  spirit  who  presides  over  the  north-west  corner 
of  the  sky.  He  also  said,  on  another  occasion,  "  My  pray- 
ing has  been  long."  This  referred  to  the  disposition  he 
showed  in  his  daily  conduct  to  do  what  was  good.  If  a 
man  is  virtuous  and  sincere,  Heaven  will  be  as  much 
pleased  with  him  as  with  the  man  who  prays.  Hence,  if 
a  man  seek  to  act  virtuously,  he  need  not  pray  for  forgive- 
ness :  he  will  be  forgiven  on  the  ground  of  the  sincerity  of 
his  repentance.  This  is  the  common  explanation  of  the 
passage,  and  it  is  authorised  by  Choo-foo-tsze.  But  some 
good  scholars  understand  the  expression  used  by  Con- 
fucius as  meaning  that  he  really  prayed,  and  that  it  was 
his  daily  habit. 

The  Buddhist  notion  of  sin  is  what  might  be  expected 
in  a  system  where  the  presence  and  authority  of  a  personal 
God  are  not  felt,  and  where  it  is  not  perceived  that  the 
law  which  regulates  human  actions  emanates  immediately 
from  Him.  The  ideas  of  sin  and  of  misfortune  are  very 
much  confounded.  The  sick  man  says  of  his  disease,  "  It 
is  my  sin,"  instead  of  saying,  "It  is  the  punishment  of 
my  sin."  The  character  ascribed  to  Buddha  is  that  of  a 
Saviour,  but  he  saves  from  misfortune  rather  than  from  sin. 
When  the  Buddhists  say,  as  they  often  do,  "  Great  things 
can  be  transformed  into  small,  and  small  into  nothing," 
they  mean  either  sin  or  the  misfortunes  that  it  brings ;  and 
they  suppose  that  this  will  be  effected  by  almsgiving  and 
offerings  to  the  idols. 

The  pity  that  Buddha  feels  for  men  is  excited  by  the 
delusions  and  the  sufferings  in  which  he  sees  them  in- 
volved, rather  than  by  their  guilt.  He  takes  a  misan- 
thropic view  of  human  life.  He  looks  at  it  from  the 
gloomiest  possible  point  of  observation.  To  live  is  to  be 
wretched,  and  to  die  is  wretchedness  also,  because  death  is 
but  the  introduction  to  a  similar  life  for  the  same  soul  in  a 


BUDDHIST  REDEMPTION.  135 

different  body.  He  would  rescue  mankind  altogether  from 
tlie  possibility  of  living  and  dying  any  more.  The  path  to 
the  Nirvana  is  the  remedial  scheme  of  Buddhism,  and  the 
Nirvana  itself  is  its  future  state. 

The  most  glowing  terms  are  employed  to  describe  the 
excellence  of  the  Nirvana,  yet  when  inquired  into,  it  is 
found  to  be  nothing  but  a  philosophical  abstraction,  the 
boundary  beyond  which  speculative  thought  found  itself 
unable  to  pass.  It  is  much  too  high  a  state  for  the  com- 
mon Buddhist  priest  to  indulge  the  hope  of  arriving  at  it. 
One  of  them  was  once  asked  if  he  expected  soon  to  escape 
from  the  metempsychosis  and  enter  the  Nirvana.  He 
replied,  "  Living  in  this  poor  temple,  how  could  I  ?  To 
attain  that  happiness,  I  must  dwell  on  a  hill  and  meditate 
in  solitude  on  the  law  of  Buddha."  "  Why,"  he  was  again 
asked,  " do  you  not  make  trial  of  that  mode  of  life  ? "  "I 
have  not,"  he  answered,  "  the  '  root.' "  He  meant  the  in- 
tellectual germ  or  innate  power  or  moral  capacity  from 
which  the  Buddhist  mental  development  could  proceed. 
His  interrogator  inquired  of  him  further,  "  If  you  do  not 
reach  the  Nii'vana,  how  far  on  the  path  towards  it  do  j^ou 
hope  to  arrive  ? "  "I  can  only  hope,"  said  he,  "  to  become 
man  again." 

The  feeling  that  the  common  Buddhist  has  of  his  condi- 
tion is  a  humble  one,  if  his  expressions  are  to  be  trusted. 
He  looks  on  himself  and  the  rest  of  manldnd  as  in  a 
sunken  state  of  degradation,  from  which  few  succeed  in 
escaping.  Life  is  described  as  a  vast  sea.  Men  are  tossed 
upon  the  waves  of  this  sea  perpetually.  There  is  a  shore 
which,  by  Buddha's  help,  the  tempest-driven  soul  may 
reach.  On  the  rocks  near  large  temples  inscriptions  are 
carved,  addressing  the  visitor  with  such  words  as,  "  This  is 
the  shore,"  "  You  have  but  to  turn  back,  and  you  are  safe 
on  this  shore."  Men  are  driven  hither  and  thither  on  the 
waves  of  passion,  and  very  few  escape.  Only  an  extremely 
smaU  number  attain  to  the  Nirvana.  The  power  to  do  so 
is  a  rare  gift,  as  rare  as  the  endowments  of  high  genius. 


136  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

But  it  is  tliouglit  that  much  may  be  done  by  the  monastic 
and  hermit  discipline  to  improve  the  condition  of  those 
who  adopt  it  in  the  next  life.  '  A  party  of  women  and 
children  will  sometimes  shut  themselves  in  an  apartment 
of  a  temple  for  a  fixed  time.  Their  employment  is  to 
repeat  invocations  to  Buddha  all  day.  It  is  Amitabha 
Buddha,  who  saves  in  the  western  heaven,  that  is  prayed 
to  on  these  occasions.  They  hope,  after  two  or  three  days 
spent  in  reciting  prayers,  to  have  a  better  position  secured 
to  them  in  the  next  world,  or  else  to  enter  the  western 
paradise.  The  majority  of  Buddha's  worshippers  hope  for 
nothing  higher  than  to  advance  one  or  two  steps  in  the 
scale  of  existence.  They  do  not  venture  to  anticipate 
absorption  into  the  state  of  Nirvana,  where  human  nature 
escapes  at  length  from  misery.  They  will  have  to  wait 
through  a  long  series  of  ages  before  that  consummation. 

The  mode  in  which  the  disciplinary  life  of  Buddhism, 
whether  solitary  or  monastic,  is  supposed  to  benefit  men 
is  by  the  salutary  restraint  on  the  passions  which  it  is  said 
to  exert.  The  passions  are  our  enemies.  The  highest 
happiness  of  the  soul  is  in  tranquillity,  and  the  agitation  of 
the  feelings  is  the  cause  of  the  diminution  of  our  happi- 
ness. We  should  aim,  therefore,  at  perfect  rest ;  and  this 
is  sought  after  in  the  monastic  institutions  founded  by 
Buddha. 

The  system,  as  it  came  from  the  hands  of  Shakyamuni, 
was  more  distinctly  moral  and  less  metaphysical  than 
afterwards.  Much  was  said  by  him  and  his  first  followers 
on  the  virtues  and  vices.  They  spoke  of  ten  vices — three 
of  the  body,  namely,  killing,  stealing,  and  adultery ;  four 
of  the  lips,  slandering,  reviling,  lying,  and  words  uttered 
with  a  vicious  intention ;  and  three  of  the  mind,  jealousy, 
hatred,  and  folly.  These  constitute,  then,  what  is  meant 
by  the  word  sin ;  but  that  term  loses  very  much  of  its 
significancy  when  applied  to  the  desecration  of  printed  or 
written  paper,  treading  on  an  insect,  or  wasting  rice- 
crumbs.     To  the  lo^er  class  of  Buddhists,  this  degenerated 


REDEMPTION  BY  CHANTING  PRA  VERS.        137 

use  of  the  word  is  that  which  most  readily  occurs.  In  the 
early  history  of  this  religion,  moral  duties  were  felt  to  be 
more  important  than  they  now  are.  Sometimes,  even  yet, 
a  healthy  state  of  mind  in  regard  to  moral  distinctions  is 
insisted  on  as  superior  to  conformity  with  positive  laws. 
When  a  missionary  was  urging  that  morality  was  above 
forms,  and  that  dependence  on  those  recommended  by  the 
Buddhists  cannot  secure  salvation,  one  of  the  Chinese 
whom  ;he  was  addressing  expressed  his  entire  assent  to 
the  statement,  and  illustrated  his  opinion  by  the  story  of  a 
butcher.  This  man,  although  he  followed  a  disreputable 
trade,  to  engage  in  which  is  highly  criminal,  was  honest  in 
his  dealings,  and  fond  of  reading  Buddhist  books,  burning 
incense,  and  prayer.  He  was  taken  to  heaven  by  the  great 
divinity  Kwan-yin,  who  came  in  person  at  an  appointed 
time  and  conducted  him  there.  On  the  other  hand,  a 
priest,  who  had  not  an  honest  heart,  was  abandoned  by  the 
same  divinity  to  become  the  prey  of  a  tiger. 

The  forgiveness  of  sin  is  obtained,  according  to  the 
Buddhist  notion,  by  chanting  books  of  prayers  and  leading 
an  ascetic  life.  A  common  believer  in  this  religion  will 
reply,  that  the  object  of  his  invocations  and  prayers  to 
Buddha  is  to  avert  misfortune,  to  obtain  pardon  for  sins, 
and  to  lengthen  life.  But  tliis  belongs  to  the  lower  class 
of  believers  in  Buddhism.  The  notion  of  pardon  cannot 
assume  any  great  importance  where  there  is  no  God  from 
whom  to  ask  it.  The  idea  of  redemption  in  Buddhism  is 
less  that  of  procuring  pardon  than  of  conquering  the 
sensual  nature  and  obtaining  perfect  rest.  It  is  altogether 
a  subjective  process.  To  help  tliis  process  Buddha  insti- 
tuted monastic  vows,  and  appointed  a  series  of  employ- 
ments. The  mode  in  which  these  are  now  operating  in 
China  may  be  illustrated  by  the  following  notes  of  an 
actual  conversation.  I  once  asked  an  aged  priest  at  the 
liead  of  a  monastery  if  he  had  attained  to  the  true  fruit. 
(The  result  of  meditation  and  discipline  is  termed  fruit.) 
He  replied,  that  he  had  not.     He  was  again  asked   "Do 


138  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

you,  with  the  '  Diamond  Book  of  Transcendental  Wisdom, 
hold  that  all  things  having  colour  and  form  are  empty  and 
unreal,  so  that  the  objects  surrounding  us  have  no  exist- 
ence but  in  imagination?"  His  answer  was,  "  It  is  diffi- 
cult to  say.  Those  who  have  attained  the  true  fruit  see 
all  things  to  be  delusive,  but  others  cannot  do  so."  This 
was  an  honest  confession  on  the  part  of  the  aged  monk. 
He  did  not  himself  believe,  as  his  religion  teaches,  that 
matter  is  unreal,  and  that  our  senses  are  always  deceiving 
us ;  but  he  thought  that  those  who  have  risen  into  a  state 
of  exalted  reverie  are  able  to  discern  the  truth  of  these  pro- 
positions. I  again  asked  him,  "  Are  you  the  better  for  sub- 
mitting to  the  tonsure  and  renouncing  the  world  ?"  "  No," 
said  he ;  "  it  is  good  to  be  a  monk,  and  it  is  also  good  to  be 
a  common  man."  "  Then  why,"  he  was  asked,  "  did  you 
become  a  monk  at  all  ? "  "  To  keep  the  heart  at  rest,"  he 
said,  "  so  that  it  may  not  be  ruffled  by  common  affairs." 
"And  have  you  attained  that  stage  of  advancement?" 
"  No,"  was  his  response;  "but  there  is  a  priest  here  who 
has  done  more  than  I  have."  He  led  me  to  see  him.  I 
saw  him  in  his  monkish  costume,  sitting  on  a  board  in  the 
sunshine,  his  face  turned  towards  a  wall.  I  was  informed 
that  he  never  spoke.  He  had  not  done  so  for  six  or  seven 
years,  and  was  under  a  vow  not  to  break  silence  again  for 
the  whole  of  his  Hfe.  He  constantly  wore  the  same  dress, 
and  limited  himself  to  the  luxury  of  combing  his  long  hair, 
which  was  never  cut  with  razor  or  scissors,  and  washinsr 
his  face.  He  ate  like  other  priests,  but  scarcely  ever  left 
his  apartment.  He  could  read,  but  never  took  book  in 
hand.  His  only  employment  was  to  mutter  the  prayers 
of  his  religion  in  a  low  voice.  I  wrote  on  a  piece  of 
paper  a  sentence,  "  Your  vow  not  to  speak  is  of  no  benefit 
to  you."  He  looked  on  the  paper,  read  it,  and  gave  a  faint 
smile.  He  refused  to  write  any  reply.  I  said  to  the  septua- 
genarian priest  who  had  led  us  in,  "  You  can  exhort  men 
to  repent  of  their  sin,  but  he  cannot."  "  Ah  ! "  he  replied, 
"I  am  not  so  good  as  he  is."     Last  year  (1858),  I  was 


UNSHORN  ASCETICS.  139 

told,  the  mute  priest  was  seized  in  the  street  hy  one  of  the 
city  magistrates  as  he  passed  accidentally,  with  his  flags, 
gongs,  and  retainers.  His  hair  hanging  loose  from  his  un- 
shorn head  gave  him  the  appearance  of  a  rebel,  at  the  time 
when  the  city  of  Sung-keang,  in  which  the  incident  oc- 
curred, was  in  excitement  from  the  reported  approach  of 
an  insurgent  force.  He  would  have  been  put  to  death  as 
a  "  long-haired  rebel,"  had  not  the  neighbours  who  knew 
him  explained  to  the  mandarin  what  liis  real  character 
was.  Soon  afterwards,  I  subsequently  heard,  he  was  found 
sitting  on  his  board  in  the  sunshine,  dead.  Such  a  poor 
imbecile  as  this  is  regarded  by  his  fellow-Buddhists  in 
China  as  having  adopted  an  effectual  method  of  rescuing 
himself  from  the  corrupting  and  deludmg  influence  of  the 
world,  and  as  having  found  a  short  road  to  high  attain- 
ments in  the  path  of  Buddhist  progress.  His  vow  of 
silence  is  an  example  of  the  methods  that  suggest  them- 
selves to  the  Oriental  mind  by  wliich  the  unbroken  rest 
of  the  Nirvana  may  be  as  nearly  as  possible  imitated,  and 
the  soul  be  freed  from  the  dominion  of  that  false  and  mis- 
chievous succession  of  sensations  which  come  to  us  from 
an  imaginary  thing  we  call  matter.  Such  is  the  Buddhist 
redemption ;  and  the  Buddha  or  the  Poosa,  who  teaches 
men  the  fact  of  their  delusion  and  the  mode  of  escaping 
from  it,  is  the  Buddhist  redeemer.  Philosophy  has  at- 
tempted many  great  things,  but  it  is  only  in  Buddhism  that 
it  has  attempted  the  salvation  of  the  soul.  In  the  absence 
of  a  Divine  Saviour,  manifested  in  a  human  form,  philo- 
sophy undertook,  by  thought  alone,  to  rescue  men  from  the 
evils  that  involve  them,  and  to  frame  methods  of  discipline 
and  self-elevation  that  should  harmonise  with  the  denial 
of  matter  and  of  God,  Buddhism  is  philosophy  gone  mad; 
for  it  is  philosophy  assuming  the  prerogatives  which  can 
only  belong  to  a  heavenly  religion. 

The  aims  of  Taouism  are  less  ambitious  than  those  of  the 
Buddhists.  Its  divinities  are  described  as  saving  man 
from  the  calamities  that  belong  to  the  present  life,  rather 


I40  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

than  as  seeking  to  extricate  him  altogether  from  his  con- 
nection with  the  world.  It  is  far  from  denying  the  validity 
of  the  information  given  us  by  the  senses,  and  the  exist- 
ence of  matter.  It  tries  to  etherealise  the  body,  and 
transmute  it  to  a  purer  form,  in  order  that  it  may  become 
immortal,  and  capable  of  rising  by  its  own  energy  to  the 
celestial  regions. 

While  Buddhism  speaks  much  of  the  false  and  the  true,, 
saying  that  the  knowledge  6f  truth  is  gained  when  certain 
metaphysical  dogmas  are  understood,  and  while  Confu- 
cianism discourses  on  the  right  and  the  wrong  in  morals, 
the  mind  of  the  Taouist  is  rather  occupied  with  the  gross 
and  the  'pure,.  It  undertakes  to  subject  man  as  a  whole, 
soul  and  body,  to  a  process  of  purification.  All  on  earth  is 
gross.  All  in  heaven  is  pure.  Those  who  employ  a  mode 
of  discipline  for  themselves,  similar  to  those  used  for  the 
transmutation  of  gross  substances  into  gold,  and  the  resto- 
ration of  the  body  in  a  state  of  disease  to  a  state  of  health, 
will  attain  at  last  the  power  to  rise  from  earth  to  heaven. 
The  body  will  lose  its  grossness,  the  soul  become  more 
pure,  and  then  the  apotheosis  will  take  place. 

The  idea  of  sin  is  the  same  in  Taouism  as  in  the  system 
of  Confucius.  Its  classification  of  the  virtues,  and  the 
account  it  gives  of  retribution  in  the  present  life,  are  at 
one  with  what  we  find  in  Confucianism.  These  two  sys- 
tems have  here  borrowed  from  the  same  national  beliefs. 
But  there  is  this  difference — Confucius  is  content  with  the 
reward  of  an  approving  conscience,  while  the  other  faith 
desires  as  rewards  of  virtue,  longevity,  riches,  health,  rank, 
and  a  numerous  posterity. 

Laou-keun,  the  founder  of  the  Taouist  religion,  incul- 
cated quietness  and  self-restraint.  "  Let  all  the  passions 
be  carefully  controlled."  "  Strength  and  progress  are  found 
in  rest."  His  followers  interpreted  this  doctrine  as  requir- 
ing the  hermit  life ;  but  they  did  not,  like  the  Buddhists, 
think  it  necessary  to  take  a  vow  of  celibacy,  or  to  have  the 
head  clean  shaven,  or  to  avoid  the  destruction  of  animal  life. 


TAOUIST  MEANS  OF  REDEMPTION.  141 

The  soul  being  merely  a  fine  species  of  matter,  the  idea 
of  salvation  comes  to  be  that  of  relief  from  all  sufferings 
of  body  or  mind.  If  the  body  can  be  made  impregnable 
against  the  attacks  of  disease  and  death,  it  will  then  be 
like  that  of  the  immortals.  In  various  ages  there  have 
been  men  who  have  sought  the  plant  that  confers  immor- 
tality, and  found  it.  Others  have  tried  to  discover  by 
chemistry  the  process  by  which  the  baser  metals  are  turned 
to  gold.  The  principal  agent  in  this  process,  being  a  uni- 
versal elixir,  can  be  applied  to  render  the  body  immortal. 

Beyond  this  low  view  of  the  method  of  rescue  for  man 
from  the  misery  of  his  present  state,  the  Taouists  were 
scarcely  able  to  rise  at  all  till  they  began  to  borrow 
from  Buddhism.  The  hermit  life  was  a  point  of  similarity 
which  encouraged  a  general  imitation  of  the  system  of  that 
religion.  They  began  to  describe  Laou-keun  in  much  the 
same  manner  as  Buddha  is  described,  and  they  invented 
personages  to  correspond  to  Poosa.  Eest  and  meditation 
are  the  means  of  redemption ;  and  the  human  teacher  is 
the  redeemer.  That  from  which  man  is  redeemed  is  all 
that  is  gross  and  impure,  whether  belonging  to  the  body  or 
the  soul. 

Such  a  view  of  the  results  to  wdiich  men  have  come  in 
China,  with  the  aid  of  three  ancient  and  popular  religious 
systems,  on  the  great  subjects  of  sin  and  redemption,  is 
suited  to  awaken  deep  feelings  of  pity  in  the  Christian's 
mind.  And  the  nature  of  the  Gospel,  its  adaptation  to 
human  wants,  and  the  history  of  its  past  successes,  will 
fill  with  sanguine  hope  the  minds  of  those  who  seek  to 
spread  the  doctrine  of  a  Divine  redemption  by  a  Divine 
Saviour  in  that  vast  Empire. 


(    142   ) 


CHAPTER   XII. 

NOTIONS   ON   IMMORTALITY  AND   FUTURE  JUDGMENT. 

The  notions  of  the  Chinese  people  with  regard  to  immor- 
tality and  a  judgment  to  come,  it  will  be  found  on 
examination,  are  very  unsatisfactory  and  indefinite.  The 
knowledge  of  the  future  to  be  anticipated  for  the  soul  in 
the  coming  life  is  of  the  highest  moral  importance.  It  is 
not  only  an  incentive  to  virtue  to  know  that  the  good  man 
will  be  happy  hereafter,  but  it  confirms  the  confidence  of 
men  in  the  principles  of  moral  right  to  anticipate  with 
certainty  that  the  inequalities  in  the  distribution  of  rewards 
and  punishments  noticed  in  the  history  of  mankind  will 
be  made  to  disappear  when  the  Divine  government  of  this 
world  shall  come  to  be  viewed  as  only  a  single  scene  in 
the  universal  Divine  government,  and  the  happiness  and 
misery  now  distributed  to  men  shall  be  seen  to  be  only 
preliminary  to  a  universal  and  perfectly  just  award. 

The  Chinese  sage  said  so  little  on  the  subject  of  the 
unseen  world,  that  the  national  tendency  is  towards  un- 
belief in  regard  to  the  immortality  of  the  soul.  The 
unthinking  accept  the  fables  of  Buddhism,  but  the  reflect- 
ing too  often  profess  entire  want  of  faith.  Confucius  gave 
no  distinct  utterance  to  his  disciples.  He  laid  stress  on 
duty  and  virtue,  but  said  nothing  of  the  rewards  or  penalties 
to  be  given  for  obedience  or  disobedience  to  what  they 
enjoin. 

Some  in  China  hold  that  the  souls  of  the  good  will  go 
to  a  place  of  happiness,  but  not  those  of  the  common  mul- 
titude. There  are  Confucianists  who  believe  this,  though 
it  is  properly  a  notion  of  the  Taouists,  and  springs  out  of 


BELIEF  IN  GHOSTS.  143 

materialistic  views  of  the  soul.  The  materialist  finds  a 
heaven  for  the  purified  spirit  of  the  good  man  in  the  fine 
ether  which  floats  round  the  stars,  far  above  the  gross 
material  world  that  constitutes  our  present  abode ;  but  he 
needs  no  hell  for  the  wicked,  whose  souls  he  supposes  to 
die  wdth  their  bodies. 

These  opinions  are  indigenous  in  China,  and  they  agree 
so  closely  with  the  peculiar  philosophy  that  permeates  the 
language  and  ideas  of  the  people,  that,  although  not  strictly 
Confucian,  they  exercise  great  influence  over  many  pro- 
fessed followers  of  Confucius.  The  immortality  of  the 
soul  has  not  been  discussed  among  them  extensively,  and 
it  is  common  to  take  for  granted  that  the  soul  is  a  certain 
small  quantity  of  vapour  capable  of  division  into  parts. 
The  custom  of  calling  to  the  soul,  just  after  death,  to  come 
back,  now  prevalent  among  the  people,  is  mentioned  in 
very  ancient  books.  It  must  have  existed  for  more  than 
2000  years.  The  friends  of  the  deceased  go  to  the  well, 
to  the  roof  of  the  house,  to  the  north-west  corner,  with  other 
parts  of  the  dwelling,  and  call  to  the  spirit  to  return. 
"  Death  they  call  the  breaking  of  the  three-inch  vapour." 
At  the  moment  of  death  this  portion  of  vapour,  three  inches 
long,  separating  from  the  organisation  to  which  it  belonged, 
escapes  upward  like  a  wreath  of  smoke,  or  a  small  light 
cloud,  into  the  region  of  thin  air. 

There  is  also  the  notion  of  ghosts  among  the  Chinese ; 
and  it  would  seem  that  these  imagined  appearances  of 
deceased  persons  are  to  be  regarded  as  thin  material  vehicles 
for  the  soul,  as  bodies  constituted  of  a  finer  matter  than 
those  in  which  the  soul  previously  resided.  In  this  respect 
the  popular  notion  is  probably  the  same  in  China  as  in  the 
West.  Have  the  Chinese  any  conception,  then,  of  the  soul 
as  immaterial  ?  Have  they  the  idea  of  spirit,  of  an  imma- 
terial being  inhabiting  the  ghost-like  appearance,  as  it 
inhabited  the  common  human  body,  and  capable  of  a 
separate  existence  ?  One  would  be  inclined  to  reply  in  the 
negative  to  this  question,  and  to  say  that  it  was  the  intro- 


144  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

duction  of  Hindoo  thought  that  first  made  them  acquainted 
with  the  doctrine  of  the  immateriality  of  the  soul,  were  it 
not  for  the  meaning  and  use  of  certain  terms  in  their  lan- 
guage anterior  to  Buddhism.  If  a  search  were  made  in 
old  Chinese  books,  classical  and  not  classical,  for  passages 
to  determine  this  question,  they  would  satisfactorily  show 
that  the  notion  existed  in  the  germ,  although  no  direct 
discussion  upon  it  had  arisen.  No  one  had  come  forward 
to  af&rm  or  deny  it  till  the  Buddhists  began  to  attack  the 
common  Chinese  belief  that  the  souls  of  men  separate  into 
thin  air  at  the  time  of  their  death. 

The  doctrine  of  the  immateriality  of  the  soul  is  necessary 
to  that  of  the  transmigration  of  souls.  To  spread  their 
opinions  among  the  Chinese,  the  advocates  of  Buddhism 
had  to  try  what  argument  would  do  for  the  establishment 
of  the  doctrine  of  a  future  state.  Several  books  were 
written  with  this  object.  The  books  themselves  are  lost, 
but  their  names  remain  in  old  catalogues,  under  the  titles 
"Discussion  on  the  Future  Life,"  &c.  The  publication  of 
such  works  early  in  the  Christian  era  indicates  the  con- 
dition of  native  Chinese  thinking  on  the  nature  and 
destiny  of  the  soul.  Although  the  books  which  take  up 
the  argument  fully  for  the  immateriality  and  immortality 
of  the  soul  on  the  Buddhist  side  are  lost,  the  traces  which 
still  remain  in  Chinese  history  of  this  controversy  are  clear 
enough  to  show  that  the  Buddhists  afQrmed  both  these 
doctrines.  Discussions  were  sometimes  held  in  the  pre- 
sence of  the  Emperor  between  high  officers  of  the  Govern- 
ment for  and  against  the  Buddhist  view.  It  was  when 
the  question  of  the  persecution  of  Buddhism  was  brought 
forward  for  consideration  in  the  imperial  council  that 
these  recorded  conversations  took  place.  I  have  not  now 
the  opportunity  of  citing  them,  but  the  fact  of  their  exist- 
ence shows  that  the  opposite  view  was  the  common  one  in 
China  at  the  time. 

The  word  used  for  soul  in  these  early  arguments  on  the 
immortality  of  man  was  sliin.     The  term  which  is  con- 


ANCIENT  IDEA  OF ''spirit:'  145 

stantly  used  in  antithesis  to  it  is  liing,  "form."  The  posses- 
sion of  a  perceptible  form  cliaracterises  material  objects, 
and  its  absence,  to  the  Chinese  mind,  defines  that  which 
is  immaterial.  This  usage  of  the  words  exists  in  Chinese 
books  earKer  than  the  era  of  the  introduction  of  Buddhism, 
and  it  has  always  remained.  The  sense,  then,  belonging 
to  the  term  shin  is  a  formless  and  invisible  existence. 
Spiritual  beings  inhabiting  nature,  in  heaven  or  on  earth, 
powerful  or  weak,  are,  with  the  souls  of  men,  included 
under  this  class.  But  whether  the  soul,  or  any  of  the 
innumerable  unseen  spirits  called  sliin,  be  merely  an  at- 
tenuated form  of  matter,  a  kind  of  invisible  gas,  filling  a 
certain  space  but  not  perceptible  to  the  senses,  or  whether 
it  be  a  substance  entirely  distinct  from  matter — viz.,  mind  or 
spirit,  had  not,  so  far  as  we  know,  been  considered  in  China. 
They  had  not  gone  further  in  their  researches  into  the  nature 
of  the  soul  than  to  describe  it  as  invisible  substance. 

If  Confucianism  had  favoured  speculation  on  this  and 
kindred  subjects,  it  must  have  adopted  opinions  antago- 
nistic to  materialism,  because  it  is  itself  founded  on  the 
teachings  of  conscience  and  the  immutable  principles  of 
morality.  These  would  have  led  to  a  distinct  preference 
for  high  views  on  the  soul's  immortality  and  immaterial 
nature.  But  Confucius  was  not  speculative.  He  said 
there  were  four  things  of  which  he  avoided  the  discussion : 
they  w^ere— supernatural  appearances,  feats  of  physical 
strength,  disorderly  conduct,  and  spirits  {shin).  Practical 
in  his  tendencies,  he  had  no  liking  for  the  subtleties  of 
metaphysics.  Wishing  to  keep  his  footing  firm  on  ground 
that  he  felt  to  be  safe,  he  declined  to  discourse  on  death 
and  its  consequences. 

The  followers  of  the  sage  would  willingly  have  copied 
the  example  of  their  teacher,  and  have  left  these  points 
undiscussed,  but  they  have  not  been  allowed  to  remain  on 
neutral  ground.  They  have  had  to  form  some  opinion  on 
points  where  the  Taouists  and  the  Buddhists  have  suc- 
ceeded in  obtaining  the  assent  of  the  multitude  to  their 
10  K 


146  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

views.  For  example,  if  the  modern  Confiicianist  be  asked, 
where  is  the  soul  of  the  sage,  he  will  in  very  few  cases  answer 
that  his  soul  perished  when  he  died.  He  will  prefer  to  say 
that  the  soul  of  Confucius  is  in  heaven.  The  idea  of  a  future 
state  of  happiness  has  become  common  among  the  mass  of 
the  people,  and  the  disciple  of  Confucius,  unconsciously 
almost,  adopts  the  present  belief,  although  in  doing  so  he 
goes  further  than  is  warranted  by  the  express  teachings  of 
the  favourite  sage  of  his  country.  If  further  questioned 
as  to  the  details  of  the  residence  set  apart  for  the  good, 
he  will  either  plead  entire  ignorance,  which  is  the  proper 
Confucian  answer,  or  he  will  revert  to  the  Taouist  descrip- 
tion of  heaven. 

The  principal  support  in  the  Confucian  religion  to  the 
statement  that  the  Chinese  know  the  fact  of  the  future 
state,  is  found  in  the  custom  of  sacrificing  to  ancestors. 
This  existed  before  Confucius,  from  the  earliest  times  in 
that  country.  It  belonged,  therefore,  to  the  primitive 
Chinese  religion,  that  from  which  the  systems  of  Confucius 
and  of  Taou  were  both  derived.  Sacrifices  were  offered  to 
deceased  sages  and  the  shades  of  ancestors,  as  they  were  to 
the  spirit  of  Heaven  and  the  spirits  residing  in  the  various 
parts  of  nature.  The  year  after  Confucius  was  dead,  a 
funeral  temple  was  erected  to  his  honour.  His  disciple, 
Tsze-kung,  stayed  for  six  years  at  his  tomb.  In  his  temple 
were  buried  articles  of  dress  that  he  had  worn,  with  his 
musical  instruments  and  books.  Sacrifices  were  directed 
by  royal  authority  to  be  offered  to  him.  It  was  not  till 
many  years  after  that,  an  Emperor  of  the  Han  dynasty 
passing  the  spot,  a  bullock  was  slain  to  be  presented  to 
him  as  a  sacrifice.  It  is  now  universal  to  offer  a  bullock, 
with  other  animals,  to  Confucius  in  every  Chinese  city. 
No  priests  are  employed.  It  is  an  official  act  forming  a 
part  of  the  annual  duties  of  the  city  magistrate  and  other 
resident  officers. 

This  act  of  reverence  to  the  mams  of  the  national  sage 
and  to  the  souls  of  ancestors  is  described  as  a  continuation 


THE  BUDDHISTIC  FUTURE  STATE.  147 

of  the  respect  paid  to  them  while  living.     The  fact  that 
this  worship  is  paid  does  not  require  them  to  be  spoken  of 
as  divinities ;  but  it  may  be  taken  as  proof  that  the  soul  is 
considered  still  to  have  a  certain  sort  of  life  after   its 
separation  from  the  body.     Such  a  custom  implies  that 
they  are  believed  to  possess  life,  if  not  a  high  form  of 
happiness.     So  far  from  dignifying  their  ancestors  with 
divine  attributes,  or  believing  them  to  exercise  a  beneficent 
providence,  as  would  be  the  case  if  they  worshipped  them 
as  divine  personages,  they  suppose  them  to  be  less  happy 
than  in  their  lifetime.     Their  happiness  depends  on  the 
amount  of  honour  that  is  paid  to  them  by  their  worshippers. 
The  wise  and  the  virtuous  are  rewarded  with  the  immortality 
of  fame,  the  applause  and  imitation  of  subsequent  genera- 
tions, and  with  sacrifices  in  temples  erected  for  their  wor- 
ship ;  but  according  to  the  strict  Confucian  doctrine  thej\ 
have  no  heaven,  properly  so  called.     The  soul,  if  it  does 
not  return  to  its  elements  and  become  for  ever  dissipated, 
exists  in  a  widowed  and  lonely  state,  hopeless  and  help- 
less.    The  time  of  its  enjoyment  as  a  conscious  individual 
agent  has  passed.     It  is  only  during  the  period  of  union 
with   the  body  that  it  can  be  called   happy,  except   in 
receiving  the  approval  and  reverence  of  posterity. 

The  Christian  reader  who  has  proceeded  thus  far  will 
feel  that  there  is  need  for  the  Gospel  to  bring  life  and 
immortality  to  light  in  the  land  of  Confucius.  The  system 
of  that  sage  declines  to  speak  at  all  of  the  future  state,  and 
it  knows  of  no  retribution  except  what  comes  in  the  pre- 
sent life  or  in  the  character  given  to  the  dead  by  posterity. 
In  the  Buddliist  view  of  the  future  state  there  are  three 
phases.  It  will  be  convenient  to  notice  them  in  the  order 
of  their  origin. 

The  Hindoo  national  doctrine  of  the  transmigTation  of 
souls  forms  the  groundwork  of  Buddhism,  as  it  does  of 
other  systems  originated  in  India.  According  to  this  view, 
the  present  life  of  each  living  being  is  a  state  of  retribution 
for  the  past  and  probation  for  the  future.      Neither  the 


148  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

heaven  nor  the  hell  of  the  metempsychosis  are  eternal 
states.  They  are  liable  to  change,  and  their  inhabitants  to 
death.  In  each  of  the  thirty-six  regions  called  heaven 
there  is  some  ruling  divinity  and  a  multitude  of  subordi- 
nate persons.  They  are  the  Devas  and  Deva-Kings  of 
popular  Hindooism.  Among  them  figure  Brahma,  Seeva, 
and  Indra.  The  souls  of  men  may  pass  into  the  paradise 
of  any  one  of  these  gods  and  become  either  subordinate  or 
chief.  In  course  of  time  such  a  life  must  terminate,  and 
another  state  will  be  entered  on.  It  is  higher  or  lower  in 
the  scale  of  honour  and  enjoyment  in  proportion  to  the 
merit  of  the  individual  soul.  There  is  the  more  room  for 
gradation  in  rewards  and  punishments,  because  there  is  in 
the  present  world  the  state  of  animals  into  which  souls 
may  pass,  beside  that  of  men.  There  are  also  two  classes  of 
beings,  called  Asura  and  Preta,  between  men  and  animals. 
The  Pretas  are  much  spoken  of  in  China  as  "  hungry  ghosts." 
The  three  conditions  of  misery  are  those  of  hell,  of  animals, 
and  of  hungry  ghosts.  The  other  three,  heaven,  man,  and 
Asura,  are  states  of  comparative  enjoyment. 

In  the  common  notions  of  the  Chinese  at  the  present 
day,  the  state  of  the  soul  is  determined  at  death  by  Yama, 
the  Hindoo  god  of  the  dead.  His  Chinese  name  is  Yen-lo- 
wang.  Not  much  is  said  of  him  in  the  Buddhist  sacred 
books,  but  his  name  is  perpetually  on  the  lips  of  the  people 
when  death  and  future  judgment  are  mentioned.  Among 
the  very  numerous  Buddhist  proper  names  transferred  from 
Sanscrit,  a  few  only  have  become  popular.  Of  these  Yen- 
lo-wang  is  one  of  the  most  familiar.  He  is  believed  to 
determine  the  mode  and  time  of  death,  as  well  as  the 
subsequent  state  of  the  soul.  A  common  distich  says,  to 
express  that  death  is  inevitable : — 

"  Yen  wang  choo  ting  san  keng  sze 
Twan  puh  lew  jin  taoii  woo  keng." 

"  King  Yama  having  decided  that  a  man  shall  die  at  the  third 
watch  of  the  night,  will  certainly  not  allow  him  to  live  till  the 
fifth." 


NIRVANA.  .  149 

This  is  the  most  common  view  of  future  judgment  among 
the  Chinese.  The  fate  of  men  depends  on  the  decisions  of 
Yama,  the  king  of  death.  But  his  reign  is  only  within  the 
lower  sphere  of  existence,  and  he  cannot  control  the  man 
who,  by  the  effort  of  his  own  wisdom  and  goodness,  raises 
himself  gradually  higher  till  he  passes  out  of  the  revolu- 
tions of  the  wheel  of  life  and  death,  and  enters  the  region 
of  pure  thought,  where  a  much  higher  being,  Buddha 
himself,  presides. 

The  second  phase  to  be  considered  in  the  Buddhist 
doctrine  of  the  future  state  in  China  is  that  which  has  just 
been  alluded  to.  The  disciples  of  Buddha  escape  by  his 
help  from  the  six  paths  where  the  soul  is  exposed  to  a 
constant  succession  of  lives  and  deaths,  into  a  higher 
sphere  where  there  is  rest  from  change  and  from  misery. 
The  soul  proceeds  on  the  path  to  the  Mrvana,  and  there 
becomes  lost  in  absolute  freedom  from  all  sensations,  pas- 
sions, and  thoughts.  When  Shakyamuni  Buddha  died,  an 
old  man  surrounded  by  liis  disciples,  he  was  said  by  them 
to  have  entered  the  Nirvana.  This  is  a  phrase  used  by  the 
other  Hindoo  sects,  as  well  as  by  the  Buddhists,  to  denote 
the  state  aimed  at  both  by  philosophy  and  religion.  It 
expresses  the  triumph  of  the  soul  over  matter.  The  consci- 
ousness of  existence  is  entirely  lost  in  the  Nirvana,  and  yet 
it  is  not  annihilation.  For  that  would  be  a  negative  idea, 
and  the  Nirvana  is  something  neither  positive  nor  negative, 
but  the  perfect  absence  of  both.  None  but  Buddha  him- 
self enters  the  Nirvana  at  death.  Other  beings  have  to 
wait  till  they  become  Buddha  through  abstraction  of  the 
thinking  faculties  from  their  activity  by  the  various  modes 
of  discipline  instituted  for  the  purpose.  They  may 
have  to  pass  through  thousands  of  lives  before  they 
can  attain  this.  The  doctrine  of  a  judgment  to  come 
forms  no  part  of  the  notion  of  the  Nirvana,  because  it 
does  not  admit  of  the  authority,  or  even  the  existence, 
of  a  supreme  governor  and  judge.  The  Nirvana,  which 
amounts,  in  fact,  to  annihilation,  is  a  fitting  companion 


15°  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

to  the  atheism  which  constitutes  the  prime  error  of  the 
Buddhist  creed. 

The  third  phase  of  the  Buddhist  idea  of  the  future  state 
in  China  is  the  paradise  of  the  western  heaven.  The  doc- 
trine of  the  Nirvana  is  much  too  abstruse  to  be  popular. 
It  does  not  come  sufficiently  near  to  popular  wants  to  be 
the  object  of  an  ordinary  man's  ambition.  Those  who 
constitute  the  mass  of  Buddha's  worshippers  cannot  enter 
into  the  idea  of  the  Nirvana.  They  need  something  more 
gratifying  to  common  human  feelings.  It  was  to  satisfy 
this  want  that  the  fiction  of  the  "  Peaceful  Land  in  the 
West "  was  framed.  A  Buddha  was  imagined  distinct  from 
the  Buddha  of  history,  Gautama  or  Shakyamuni.  He  was 
called  Amitabha,  "boundless  age."  All  who  repeat  the 
invocation  "  Namo  Amitabha  Buddha,"  commonly  read  in 
China,  "Nan  woo  o  me  to  fuh"  (Honour  to  Amitabha 
Buddha),  are  assured  that  they  wiU  be  taken  at  death  to 
the  paradise  of  this  personage,  situated  at  an  enormous 
distance  to  the  westward  of  the  visible  universe.  The 
souls  of  such  worshippers  will  remain  there  for  millions  of 
years.  Their  employment  will  be  to  gaze  upon  the  coun- 
tenance of  Amitabha,  to  hear  the  singing  of  beautiful  birds, 
and  to  enjoy  the  magnificence  of  the  gardens  and  lakes 
which  adorn  his  abode. 

Such  is  the  heaven  of  charming  sights  and  sounds  which 
is  promised  as  a  reward  to  the  faithful  Buddhist.  He  can 
find  in  it  something  more  attainable  than  the  Nirvana. 
The  ordinary  worshipper  may  hope  for  it.  It  is  secured  by 
the  help  of  Amitabha  in  answer  to  prayer. 

The  paradise  of  the  western  heaven  is  not  known  to  the 
Buddliism  of  Bii-mah  and  Ceylon,  but  it  is  the  most  favour- 
ite article  in  the  creed  of  the  Buddhists  of  China  and  all 
the  north  parts  of  the  vast  region  over  which  that  religion 
has  spread. 

In  the  common  phraseology  of  the  Chinese,  when  it  is 
said,  as  often  occurs,  of  a  man  reputed  vii^tuous,  that  he  has 
"  ascended  to  heaven,"  simncj  teen,  it  is  the  language  of  the 


THE  TA  O  VIST  HE  A  VEN.  1 5 1 

Taouists  that  is  made  use  of.  The  books  of  that  relidon 
speak  of  many  palaces  among  the  stars,  where  the  gods 
and  the  genii  reside.  To  the  majority  of  men  they  sup- 
pose death  to  be  destruction  of  body  and  soul,  but  the 
virtuous  few  are  rewarded  with  an  abode  in  the  paradise  of 
the  genii.  The  tdng  shin,  or  soul,  escapes  at  death  to 
the  region  of  stars,  and  enjoys  there  an  immortality  of 
happiness. 

The  historical  founder  of  the  religion,  Laou-keun,  is 
described  as  dwelling  in  the  tae  tsing  hung,  "the  palace  of 
exalted  purity."  The  paradise  inhabited  by  the  first  per- 
son in  the  Taouist  trinity  is  called  the  metropolis  of  the 
pearl  mountain,  and  its  entrance,  in  imitation  of  the  usual 
Oriental  style  in  speaking  of  the  abode  of  royalty,  is  "  the 
golden  door."  The  very  common  divinity,  Yuh-te,  sub- 
ordinate to  the  trinity  just  alluded  to,  is  enthroned  in  the 
"  pure  pearl  palace." 

The  stars  near  the  north  pole  are  preferred  in  legends 
that  speak  of  the  abodes  of  the  genii.  Some  of  the  stars 
-receive  names  from  the  gods  supposed  to  reside  in  them. 
Others  take  as  their  names  the  parts  of  a  palace,  as  the 
"hall  of  heaven,"  "the  celestial  door,"  &c.,  given  them 
doubtless  in  agreement  with  the  notion  that  the  stars  are 
the  dwelling-places  of  the  divinities  who  rule  the  world. 
The  stars  were  named  before  the  Taouist  nomenclature 
was  formed,  but  the  makers  of  that  nomenclature,  belong- 
ing to  the  early  part  of  the  Christian  era,  incorporated  in  it 
all  the  old  popular  notions  respecting  heaven  and  the  gods 
which  they  found  suitable  to  their  purpose. 

In  their  books  the  god  of  one  of  these  stellar  palaces  is 
often  described  as  addressing  instructions  on  the  doctrines 
of  Taouism  to  a  multitude  of  disciples.  They  are  the 
genii  who  have  escaped  from  mortality,  and  it  is  held  out 
as  the  destiny  of  the  good  among  mankind  to  become  such 
genii  and  ascend  to  heaven  at  death. 

In  early  Chinese  fable,  the  Kwun-lun  mountains  in  Tibet 
were  a  favourite  region  for  the  abodes  of  the  genii.     They 


152  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

are  north  of  the  Himalaya,  are  only  second  to  them  in 
elevation,  and  were  sooner  known  to  the  Chinese.  A 
female  divinity,  called  Se-wang-moo,  who  plays  a  con- 
spicuous part  in  the  religious  romance  of  that  people,  is 
believed  to  reside  on  one  of  the  highest  of  these  mountains. 
The  heroes  of  Taouist  mythology  are  often  described  as 
proceeding  to  that  spot,  and  residing  there  as  in  a  terres- 
trial paradise.  The  se.e,n  jin,  or  genii,  are  teen  seen,  "  celes- 
tial immortals,"  or  te  seen,  "  terrestrial  immortals."  They 
all  have  ascribed  to  them  wisdom,  virtue,  perpetual  youth, 
and  magical  power.  But  there  are  degrees  in  these  quali- 
ties. Those  of  inferior  powers  remain  in  some  mountain 
paradise  like  that  of  Kwun-lun,  while  those  of  higher  rank 
are  transferred  to  the  stars. 

The  Christian  heart  is  grieved  at  the  reflection  that  a 
wise  and  learned  nation  like  the  Chinese  should  be  no 
better  informed  as  to  the  future  of  the  soul  than  these 
notices  show  them  to  be.  But  they  prove  at  least  that 
men,  when  left  without  the  Bible,  will  find  their  way  to 
some  system  or  articles  of  belief,  however  incongruous 
and  mistaken  they  may  be,  to  satisfy  the  consciousness 
of  a  coming  life  natural  to  all  men.  Their  possession 
of  this  consciousness  is  a  preparation  for  Christianity,  and 
they  will  learn  one  day  to  value  the  truth  the  more  in 
proportion  to  the  falseness  and  deficiencies  of  the  beliefs 
which  they  will  exchange  for  it. 


(  153  ) 


CHAPTER   XIII. 

CHINESE   OPINIONS   OF   CHRISTIANITY. 

The  religious  condition  of  the  Chinese  mind  may  be  illus- 
trated by  the  mode  in  which  Christianity  is  received  by  it. 

We  cannot  expect  that  the  religion  of  the  Bible  should 
be  accepted  at  once  with  a  cordial  and  unquestioning  faith 
by  the  people  of  a  country  like  China.  It  must  first  be 
subjected  to  the  criticisms  that  most  readily  occur,  to  them. 
The  nature  of  those  criticisms  dej)ends  on  the  state  of 
opinion  prevailing  among  such  as  use  them.  They  have  a 
certain  standard  by  which  they  form  a  judgment  on  moral 
and  religious  subjects.  The  objections  they  bring  against 
Christianity  are,  therefore,  an  index  to  their  state  in  regard 
to  morality  and  rehgion. 

One  of  the  commonest  objections  they  mention  against 
Christianity  is,  that  it  does  not  admit  of  the  worship  of 
ancestors.^  Not  to  worship  their  ancestors  they  regard  as 
equivalent  to  an  entire  forgetting  of  fihal  duty.  Confucius 
said  that  sacrifices  to  deceased  parents  should  be  offered  in 
compKance  with  propriety  and  ancient  custom.  If  this  be 
neglected,  as  it  must  be  by  the  convert  to  Christianity,  it 
is  viewed  as  a  great  crime.  A  person  guilty  of  this  is  puh 
heaou,  "  unfilial,"  and  nothing  worse  can  be  said  of  him 
by  the  malice  of  his  greatest  enemies.  When  the  Emperor 
Yung-ching  was  bent  on  persecuting  the  Eoman  Catholic 
converts  early  in  the  eighteenth  century,  he  was  interceded 
with  in  vain  by  the  Jesuit  mathematicians  whom  he  em- 
ployed in  the  astronomical  tribunal.  He  told  them  that  the 
adoption  of  their  religion  was  destructive  of  filial  piety. 


154  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

They  defended  themselves  by  reminding  the  Emperor  that 
filial  piety  was  expressly  enjoined  by  Christianity  as  one  of 
the  most  solemn  and  binding  of  human  duties.  They  also 
stated  that  Christians  were  so  far  from  forgetting  deceased 
parents,  that  they  carefully  preserved  portraits  and  other 
relics  of  them,  and  wore  rings  to  keep  them  in  memory. 
It  did  not,  however,  appear  to  the  Emperor  that  anything 
could  compensate  for  the  want  of  sacrifices  >nd  religious 
worship,  and  he  declined  to  revoke  the  edict  of  persecution. 

The  Jesuit  missionaries  wished  to  allow  the  converts  to 
retain  the  practice  of  sacrificing  to  ancestors,  as  being  a 
civil  and  not  a  religious  observance.  Missionaries  of  other 
orders  held  a  different  opinion.  They  viewed  this  practice 
as  unquestionably  religious,  and  they  demanded  that  it 
should  be  entirely  given  up  by  all  who  professed  to 
abandon  heathenism.  The  Pope,  to  whom  the  dispute  was 
referred,  decided  against  the  Jesuits,  as  he  did  on  another 
point.  For  the  missionaries  of  that  order,  when  they 
pleaded  with  him  for  the  adoption  of  the  ancient  terms 
Shang-te,  Teen,  and  Heaven,  as  the  equivalents  of  the 
word  God,  were  unsuccessful,  and  the  newly-invented 
term,  Teen-choo,  Lord  of  Heaven,  the  favourite  with  the 
other  orders,  was  preferred  by  the  Pope,  and  imposed 
authoritatively  upon  the  missionaries  and  converts. 

A  recent  Chinese  author,  in  an  attack  upon  Christianity, 
says,  "  The  religion  of  the  Lord  of  Heaven,  in  not  permit- 
ting men  to  worship  the  tablets  of  their  ancestors,  nor  to 
offer  sacrifices  to  them,  tends  to  lead  away  mankind  from 
the  respect  they  have  been  accustomed  to  pay  to  their 
parents  and  forefathers."  He  condemns  the  religion  of  the 
West  as  being  like  the  systems  of  certain  ancient  Chinese 
philosophers  that  were  condemned  by  contemporary  Con- 
fucianists  as  not  orthodox.  Yang  and  Mih,  the  men  to 
whose  doctrines  Christianity  is  compared,  had  advocated 
universal  and  undistinguishing  rectitude  and  universal 
and  undistinguishing  love  as  the  principles  of  their  re- 
spective systems.     The  followers  of  Confucius  had    said 


ATTACKS  ON  CHRISTIANITY.  155 

that  these  doctrines  were  inconsistent  with  the  duties 
of  filial  piety  and  loyalty,  which  require  that  greater  re- 
spect and  love  should  be  rendered  to  some  persons  than  to 
others.  A  Christian  writer  had  said,  "The  follower  of 
the  Buddhist  and  the  Taouist  religions  cuts  himself  off 
from  the  discharge  of  his  duties  to  princes  and  parents, 
and  he  does  not  seem  sensible  of  his  duties  towards 
Heaven.  Even  the  disciples  of  Confucius  are  not  without 
fault  in  this  point."  The  Chinese  critic  gi'ows  angry  at 
these  words.  He  defends  the  Buddhists  and  Taouists  by 
saying  that  they  honour  the  "  dragon  tablet "  in  temples, 
so  proving  their  loyalty.  The  practice  to  which  he  refers 
originated  in  times  of  persecution.  The  Buddhists  were 
compelled  to  place  a  small  tablet  to  the  Emperor  imme- 
diately in  front  of  the  principal  image  in  their  temples,  so 
that  the  worshipper,  in  bowing  to  the  image,  bowed  also  to 
the  Emperor.  He  also  quotes  a  passage  from  a  Buddhist 
work,  saying  that  to  honour  a  thovisand  Pratyeka  Buddhas 
is  not  so  good  as  to  worship  one's  parents  in  the  hall  of 
filial  piety.  He  proceeds  to  defend  the  Confucian  system, 
and  to  bring  coarse  charges  against  Jesus,  saying,  among 
other  things,  that  His  crucifixion  was  because  He  had 
transgressed  the  laws  of  His  country. 

These  and  many  similar  remarks  are  found  in  the  recent 
work,  "  Hae-kwoh-too-che,"  usually  known  as  "  Lin's  Geo- 
graphy." The  chief  compiler  and  composer  of  this  exten- 
sive production  —  a  work  in  twenty-four  volumes,  and 
which  has  gone  through  five  editions  in  a  few  years — was 
Wei-yuen,  who  did  not  long  survive  his  more  celebrated 
collaborateur,  Lin-tseh-seu.  Both  were  sincere  enemies  of 
England  and  the  English,  the  one  showing  his  antipathy 
in  his  acts  as  commissioner  in  the  war  of  1842,  and  the 
other  in  his  writings  since  that  time. 

Another  mode  of  assaulting  Christianity,  common  among 
the  Chinese  literary  class,  is  to  express  disbelief  in  its 
facts.  I  was  visited  several  times  by  a  scholar,  very  well 
informed  in  the  books  of  his  own  country,  named  Chow- 


156  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

teen-ming.  Many  men  of  inquisitive  minds  visit  the 
foreign  missionaries  at  tlie  seaport  towns  where  they  reside, 
hoping  to  gain  from  them  some  scientific  information.  He 
was  one  of  such.  He  was  introduced  by  a  native  friend  as 
being  conversant  witli  the  twenty-five  histories,  the  great 
collection  of  the  annals  of  the  successive  dynasties  of  the 
Chinese  Empire.  The  conversation  soon  turned  to  the 
subject  of  Christianity.  He  said  that  the  narrative  of  the 
death  of  Christ  on  the  cross  could  not  be  earKer  than  the 
Ming  dynasty ;  for  it  was  then  (in  the  sixteenth  century) 
that  the  Eoman  Catholic  missionaries  entered  the  "  Middle 
Kingdom,"  and  first  brought  information  of  it.  England,  he 
said,  was  a  new  country,  compared  with  China.  Its  his- 
tory as  a  nation  did  not  extend  back  more  than  a  few 
centuries.  We  could  not  know  the  course  of  events  so 
long  ago  as  Christ  was  said  to  have  lived,  with  any 
certainty.  It  was  to  him  quite  clear  that  the  New  Testa- 
ment could  not  be  so  old  as  we  said,  for  in  that  case  the 
chief  facts  ii>  the  life  of  Christ  must  have  become  known 
in  China  much  earlier.  He  was  informed,  in  reply,  that 
though  the  English  nation  had  not  been  in  existence  more 
than  a  few  centuries,  we  had  an  extensive  body  of  old 
world  literature  transmitted  in  the  ancient  languages  of 
Europe  and  Western  Asia,  and  of  an  historical  value  fully 
equal  to  that  of  the  classical  literature  of  his  own  country. 
It  was  as  old  in  time  and  as  well  supported  by  critical 
evidence.  He  professed  assent,  but  with  a  look  of  in- 
credulity on  his  countenance. 

He  was  then  asked  if  he  had  seen  the  Syrian  inscription, 
which  contained  evidence  that  Christianity  had  been 
taught  in  China  in  the  seventh  century.  This  is  an 
extremely  interesting  monument  of  the  early  spread  of 
our  religion  in  China  through  the  labours  of  missionaries 
of  the  Nestorian  Church.  It  was  found  accidentally  by 
some  workmen,  two  hundred  years  ago,  at  the  city  of 
Sengan-foo,  in  the  north-west  of  China.  Native  scholars 
regard  it  as  a  most  valuable  specimen  of  the  caligraphy 


NESTORIAN  INSCRIPTION.  157 

and  composition  of  the  Tang  dynasty,  that  to  which  it 
belongs ;  but  they  did  not  know  how  to  explain  its  Chris- 
tianity till  the  Jesuit  missionaries  came  to  their  assistance. 
My  friend  said  he  had  seen  it,  but  he  did  not  think  that 
the  religion  of  this  monument  was  Christianity.  The  fact 
of  Christ's  death  was  not  clearly  mentioned,  and  he  thought 
that  the  sentence  in  it  which  spoke  of  the  division  of  the 
world  into  four  parts  in  the  form  of  a  cross  was  not  an 
allusion  to  Christ's  death  on  the  cross,  but  only  to  the 
four  cardinal  points  of  the  horizon.  Other  passages  in 
the  inscription  were  then  pointed  ovit  to  him,  which  spoke 
of  the  trinity  of  Persons  in  the  Divine  nature,  mentioned 
the  Syrian  name  of  God  (Aloho),  and  the  number  twenty- 
seven  in  speaking  of  the  sacred  books  evidently  referring 
to  the  New  Testament.  Other  allusions  to  the  weekly 
Sabbath,  to  the  birth  of  the  Saviour  under  the  denomina- 
tion Messiah  in  the  Eoman  empire  of  the  far  West,  and  to 
other  facts  of  Christianity,  made  it  certain  that  no  other 
religion  was  described  in  the  monument.  It  was  thus 
shown  that  his  statement,  that  Christianity  was  no  earlier 
than  the  time  when  the  Eoman  Catholic  missionaries 
entered  China,  could  not  be  sustained.  It  must  be  at  least 
as  old  as  A.D,  781,  the  date  of  the  monument. 

The  advocate  of  Christianity  in  China  finds  this  cele- 
brated inscription  very  useful  in  meeting  opponents  like 
this  man.  To  refer  to  the  usual  evidences,  called  the 
historical,  is  not  conclusive  to  such  persons,  ignorant  as 
they  are  of  Judea  and  its  history.  In  proving  the  genuine- 
ness of  the  Christian  Scriptures,  this  monument  is  a  most 
important  stepping-stone  to  the  era  of  primitive  Chris- 
tianity, and  it  has  been  much  used  for  this  object  in  works 
published  by  Catholic  and  Protestant  missionaries  in  China. 

The  Jewish  monuments  at  Kai-fung-foo  help  in  China 
to  sustain  the  genuineness  of  the  Old  Testament,  just  as 
the  one  now  mentioned  contributes  to  support  that  of  the 
New.  When  this  visitor  asserted  that  we  English  were 
such  modern  people  that  we  could  not  have  books  so  old 


158  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

as  theirs,  I  took  a  Hebrew  Bible,  and  told  him  that  the 
English  were  accustomed  to  do  what  the  Chinese  did  not, 
to  learn  other  languages  besides  their  own ;  and  that  they 
read  and  preserved  books  with  as  much  care  in  the  ancient 
languages  as  in  the  modern,  so  that  the  late  origin  of  the 
English  nation  could  not  affect  the  accuracy  of  their 
information  on  the  books  and  events  of  2000  or  more 
years  ago.  Our  Hebrew  Bible  was  the  same  as  that  at 
Kai-fung-foo,  except  in  containing  not  only  the  Books  of 
Moses,  but  the  remaining  part  of  the  Old  Testament ;  the 
written  symbols  used  in  both  were  the  same,  and  it  was 
from  them  that  our  own  alphabet  was  derived.  A  com- 
plaint was  made  to  him  that  he  should  have  rashly  ques- 
tioned the  correctness  of  our  testimony  on  the  antiquity  of 
our  books.  He  said,  "Do  not  be  displeased.  I  do  not 
wish  to  treat  your  holy  religion  with  disrespect.  We  in 
this  country  belong  to  the  religion  of  the  holy  sage  Con- 
fucius, and  how  could  I  speak  ill  of  another  ? "  He  was 
informed,  in  reply,  that  he  should  prove  his  regard  for  the 
morality  of  the  national  sage  by  "  showing  good  feeling 
towards  men  from  afar."  To  question  the  correctness  of 
statements  made  by  Catholics  and  Protestants  in  China  for 
two  hundred  years  past,  respecting  the  origin  of  their  reli- 
gion, was  to  contradict  this  precept  of  the  sage.  He  said  that, 
as  a  literary  man,  he  studied  for  himself  questions  such  as 
this,  upon  the  statements  found  in  books,  and  endeavoured 
to  sift  them  as  best  he  could.  We  recommended  him  to 
learn  foreign  languages,  and  then  he  would  be  in  a  better 
position  to  criticise  European  literature. 

The  same  opponent,  in  attacking  our  religion,  referred  to 
the  difference,  as  he  described  it,  in  moral  tone  between 
the  Old  and  the  New  Testaments.  On  hearing  from  men 
of  education  in  heathen  countries  superficial  opinions  upon 
the  comparative  excellence  of  the  Books  of  God,  there  is  a 
strong  feeling  of  revulsion  awakened,  but  it  is  impossible 
to  force  upon  them  the  authority  of  God's  Word  simply 
upon  our  testimony.     They  look  at  the  book  as  ours,  not 


VIEW  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  159 

as  His.  They  must  be  brouglit  by  patient  argument  to 
admit  that  it  is  His,  and  they  must  be  borne  with  while 
they  read  and  judge.  Nothing  in  the  common  course  of 
things  can  lead  an  educated  pagan  to  look  on  the  Bible, 
when  he  first  sees  it,  as  other  than  a  human  book.  This 
Chinese  said  he  preferred  the  New  Testament  to  the  Old 
very  much,  and  threw  ridicule  on  some  parts  of  the  Old 
Testament.  He  was  told  that  the  wicked  actions  of  men, 
when  recorded  in  history,  are  as  well  adapted  to  promote 
virtue  as  their  good  actions.  The  aim  of  the  writers  in 
the  Old  Testament,  in  all  they  had  transmitted  in  their 
works,  was,  to  say  the  least,  most  unquestionably  to  ad- 
vance the  cause  of  piety  and  virtue.  If  he  continued  to 
regard  it  as  a  human  composition,  he  must  see  in  this  fact 
their  perfect  justification  in  preserving  the  memory  of 
wicked  actions.  But  more  than  this,  it  was  the  glory  of 
history  to  be  faithful,  and  in  the  classical  books  of  his  own 
country  the  conduct  of  wicked  men  was  related  along  with 
that  of  the  good.  Chinese  moralists  did  not,  however, 
consider  these  books  unfavourable  to  virtue  on  that 
account.  They  were  held  up  as  models,  and  universally 
placed  in  the  hands  of  youth  for  their  moral  training.  It 
had  been  found,  that  of  all  books  the  Old  and  the  New 
Testament  were  the  most  conducive  to  morality. 

He  did  not  like  the  high  pretensions  of  Christianity  as 
the  only  Divine  religion.  He  thought  that  the  authority 
of  the  Chinese  classics  was  absolute  for  his  countrymen 
and  himself.  When  the  conversation  turned  on  the  ques- 
tion whether  the  soul  is  single  or  divisible  into  two  at 
death,  he  considered  that  its  duality  was  certain,  because 
it  was  stated  in  the  classical  books.  "  We  have  had  these 
works,"  he  said,  "  for  three  thousand  years,  and  number- 
less productions  of  learned  men  in  the  interval  from  that 
time  till  now.  Our  Confucius  was  several  centuries  earlier 
than  Jesus." 

The  lustre  of  learning  and  antiquity  ought,  in  his  opinion, 
to  carry  the  day  in  favour  of  the  religion  of  China.     He 


i6o  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

was  told,  in  reply,  that  the  higher  antiquity  of  Confucius 
would  not  constitute  a  sufficient  claim  to  superiority, 
because  Moses,  the  Jewish  sage,  was  before  him  in  time, 
and  even  before  Wen  and  Woo,  the  two  famous  Chinese 
kings  of  the  eleventh  century  B.C.  "But,"  he  retorted, 
"  our  wise  Emperors  Yaou  and  Shun  were  earlier  than 
Moses."  Our  antiquity  goes  further  yet,  he  was  informed. 
The  date  of  Yaou  and  Shun  was  not  earlier  than  about 
2300  years  before  Christ,  but  we  have  Adam,  Enoch,  and 
Noah,  belonging  to  a  still  earlier  period.  He  then  pro- 
ceeded, in  a  good-humoured  manner,  to  show  in  another 
way,  since  he  could  not  rival  our  antiquity,  the  superiority 
of  the  East  over  the  West.  He  alluded  to  the  fact  that  the 
art  of  writing  was  borrowed  by  us  from  Asia,  our  alphabet 
being  derived  originally  from  that  used  by  the  Hebrew  nation. 
Much  of  the  opposition  the  Chinese  feel  to  Christianity 
comes  from  national  prejudice.  They  dislike  the  foreigner's 
religion  because  they  dislike  the  foreigner  himself.  Many 
violent  enemies  of  foreigners  are  found  among  the  inferior 
officers  of  Yamuns.  One  such  opponent  I  met  in  a  temple 
at  Shanghai,  some  years  since.  He  began  with  asserting 
that  our  calendar  was  wrong.  Our  months  did  not  coincide 
with  the  new  and  full  moons,  nor  with  the  spring  and  neap 
tides.  He  was  told  that  our  calendar  was  formed  so  as  to 
make  the  months  agree  with  the  motions  of  the  sun  rather 
than  of  the  moon,  for  public  convenience.  He  then  said 
it  was  preposterovis  in  us  to  exhort  them  to  virtue,  for  they 
had  books  that  taught  morality  much  earlier  and  better 
than  ours.  All  our  science  and  learning,  he  said,  M-as 
brought  from  the  East.  Laou-keun,  the  Taouist  philoso- 
pher, had  gone,  as  history  recorded,  to  the  West,  and,  no 
doubt,  communicated  the  wisdom  of  China  to  the  people 
among  whom  he  travelled.  Others  had  followed  him. 
Knowledge  had  spread  from  China  to  all  the  surrounding 
nations,  and  it  was  in  this  way  that  we  had  become  civi- 
lised. He  insisted  that  our  statements  respecting  Jesus 
were  unreasonable.     How  could  He  govern  the  universe 


MODE  OF  ATTACKING  CHRISTIANITY.         i6i 

alone?  He  must  have  inferior  divinities  to  assist  Him. 
We  denied  their  existence;  but  they  must  be  needed  in 
the  superintendence  of  the  world.  Our  Matthew,  he  said, 
for  he  had  read  some  chapters  of  the  Gospel  of  Matthew, 
was  a  Chinese  spoken  of  in  the  "  Three  Kingdoms "  (an 
historical  romance  of  the  second  century  of  the  Christian 
era),  whose  name  was  nearly  like  the  word  Matthew  in 
sound.  If  any  one  became  a  believer  in  Jesus,  he  would 
throw  away  his  character  for  liHal  piety,  for  he  would  not 
then  be  allowed  to  sacrifice  to  his  ancestors.  When  re- 
minded that  this  practice,  if  forbidden  by  God,  must  be 
given  up,  he  replied  that  it  was  undoubtedly  right,  because 
it  was  complied  with  by  the  Emperor  himself  This 
opponent  was,  as  is  clear  from  the  account  here  given,  not 
good  at  argument.  He  is  an  example  of  that  unreasoning 
hostility  which  is  often  met  with  in  China.  Everything 
foreign  is  looked  at  through  the  spectacles  of  prejudice. 
An  exclusive  spirit  marks  the  class  of  persons  referred  to, 
which  leads  them  to  regard  as  ridiculous  all  customs  and 
opinions  prevailing  among  the  "  barbarians." 

A  favourite  mode  of  attacking  Christianity  is  to  re- 
present it  as  derived  partly  from  Buddhism  and  partly 
from  the  system  of  Confucius.  "Why  should  you  speak 
of  heaven  and  hell?"  an  opponent  will  often  say  to 
the  missionary;  "we  have  that  doctrine  already.  It 
is  Buddhist,  and  it  is  notliing  new  to  us."  In  fact,  the 
Chinese  have  very  minute  descriptions  of  hell  torments. 
The  pictorial  representations  of  them  common  among 
the  people  often  reminded  me  of  some  of  the  plates  in 
"  Eoxe's  Book  of  Martyrs,"  and  of  Koman  Catholic  illus- 
trated books  for  the  use  of  the  poor  in  Ireland.  If  descrip- 
tions containing  variety  and  severity  of  torture  were  all 
that  was  requisite  to  constitute  the  doctrine  of  future 
punishments,  the  Chinese  Buddhists  have  it  among  them 
in  a  very  terrible  form.  This  being  the  state  of  the  case, 
and  the  missionary  being  compelled  to  use  the  Buddhist 
names  for  heaven  and  hell,  objectors  say  that  he  is  teach- 
10  >  L 


1 62  RELIGION  IN  CHINA . 

ing  tliem  Buddhism.  He  then  refers  to  the  authority  of 
Jesus  as  the  Divine  Eevealer  of  the  future  state,  and  the 
certainty  that  marks  His  teaching  as  compared  with  the 
baseless  statements  of  Hindoo  mythology,  a  purely  human 
and  fictitious  system,  not  capable  of  bearing  a  moment's 
careful  scrutiny. 

A  Chinese  work,  published  in  the  last  century  by  im- 
perial authority,  criticises  one  or  two  Christian  books.  It 
is  a  catalogue  raisonne  of  Chinese  works  in  the  Emperor's 
library,  with  descriptive  notes  on  all  such  as  appeared  to 
call  for  criticism.  Very  few  Christian  books  have  been 
allowed  to  remain  in  the  imperial  library,  the  greater 
number  having  been  burnt  long  since  by  order  of  Govern- 
ment. One  or  two,  however,  remain.  The  critic  speaks 
of  some  by  the  celebrated  Jesuits,  Matthew  Eicci  and 
Adam  Schaal.  He  says  of  the  "  Twenty-five  Sentences,"  a 
tract  by  Eicci,  published  in  Chinese  about  the  time  of 
James  I.,  that  much  of  it  is  stolen  from  the  Buddhists,  but 
that  the  style  of  its  composition  is  not  so  good  as  theirs. 
He  adds  that  in  the  West  Buddhism  was  the  only  religion 
they  had.  The  Europeans  adopted  its  ideas,  and  put  them 
forth  in  an  altered  form.  When  they  entered  China  they 
saw  the  books  of  Confucius,  and  began  to  borrow  from 
them  not  a  little,  in  order  to  impart  an  air  of  literary 
elegance  to  what  they  gave  out  as  their  own.  With  this 
new  help,  he  proceeds  to  say,  they  extended  their  system 
in  new  works,  and  began  to  boast  that  it  was  superior  to 
the  three  religions  of  China. 

The  critic  then  gives  his  readers  a  description  of  a 
second  work  by  Eicci,  "  The  True  Account  of  the  Eeligion 
of  God."  As  a  supplement  to  this  treatise,  Eicci  has  col- 
lected passages  from  the  Chinese  classics  which  speak  of 
the  existence  and  providence  of  God.  The  critic  says  this 
was  because  the  missionary  felt  conscious  that  he  must  not 
attack  the  religion  of  Confucius.  Eicci  also  undertook  to 
confute  the  Buddhists ;  but  in  the  opinion  of  the  imperial 
critic,  his  views  differ  very  little  from  the  Buddhist  belief 


CRITICISM  OF  CATHOLIC  WORKS.  163 

respecting  heaven  and  hell,  and  the  metempsychosis.  He 
adds,  that  in  regard  to  mankind  being  under  a  law  of 
change,  which  compels  us  to  live,  to  die,  and  afterwards  to 
live  again,  and  our  also  being  under  a  law  of  retribution, 
which  apportions  happiness  and  misery  to  men  according 
to  their  merit,  there  is  little  difference  between  the  two 
religions.  If  the  Christians  did  not  believe  in  the  meteni- 
psychosis,  the  forbidding  to  slay  animal  life,  and  the  obli- 
gation of  celibacy,  it  was  because  they  wished  to  keep  near 
the  doctrine  of  Confucius.  Some  of  the  Christian  books 
are,  he  says,  like  the  liturgical  works  of  the  Buddhists, 
while  others  resemble  those  that  treat  of  the  contempla- 
tive life. 

He  concludes  a  long  criticism  on  Catholic  books  by 
observing  that  the  Europeans  are  profoundly  versed  in 
astronomy  and  calculation,  and  cunning  in  mechanical  con- 
trivances ;  but  when  they  come  to  speak  of  morals  and 
religion,  they  are  very  heretical.  Their  writings  on  these 
subjects  did  not  deserve  to  be  placed  in  the  list  of  books 
forming  the  national  literature.  They  had,  however,  been 
included  in  the  catalogue  of  new  works  contained  in  the 
history  of  the  Ming  or  last  Chinese  dynasty,  made  by  com- 
mand of  the  Tartar  emperors.  The  compiler  of  that  work 
had  thought  proper  to  class  them  among  the  books  of  the 
Taouist  religion.  In  the  new  arrangement  they  were 
transferred  to  the  class  of  books  known  as  the  miscella- 
neous division.     So  far  the  critic. 

This  style  of  remark  on  foreign  books  translated  into 
Chinese  is  very  significant.  It  shows  in  the  true  light  the 
feeling  that  literary  men  in  that  country  entertain  respect- 
ing them.  The  Jesuit  missionaries  laboured  hard  in  the 
production  of  good  treatises  on  science  and  religion  in  the 
language  of  that  country.  Though  their  books  on  science 
are  sought  after  and  valued,  those  upon  Christianity  are 
scarcely  considered  worthy  of  a  place  in  the  national 
literature.  Perhaps,  however,  theirreal  influence  is  greater 
than  Confucian  writers  are  ready  to  admit.      They  may 


i64  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

have  helped,  by  their  account  of  God,  in  His  nature  and 
attributes,  to  render  the  modern  generation  of  scholars 
more  willing  to  return  to  the  doctrine  of  a  personal 
God,  and  to  abandon  the  notion,  so  prevalent  before  the 
Eoman  Catholics  anived,  that  He  is  nothing  but  an 
abstraction. 

Wei-yuen,  the  author  before  referred  to,  compares 
Mohammedanism  and  Christianity,  and  thinks  they  have 
both  derived  many  of  their  peculiarities  from  Brahmanism 
or  Buddhism.  He  had  been  reading  the  translation  of  the 
Bible  by  the  Protestant  missionaries,  and  he  believes  that 
he  finds  there  evidence  of  inconsistency  and  folly  greater 
than  existed  in  those  two  Hindoo  religions.  The  prohibi- 
tion of  image-worship  excites  his  indignation.  Sacrifices 
to  ancestors  are  forbidden,  and  yet  the  image  of  the  mother 
of  Jesus  is  adored  by  the  Christians,  and  the  cross  is 
hung  up  in  their  dwellings.  Why,  he  asks,  do  they  trans- 
gress the  law  of  their  own  religion  ? 

The  criticisms  of  this  and  other  authors  are  very  numer- 
ous. Some  of  them  are  extremely  foolish,  and  prove 
nothino-  but  the  i^rnorance  of  those  who  made  them.  The 
Chinese  easily  fall  into  errors  on  this  subject,  and  all  others 
relating  to  foreign  nations.  There  is  nothing  they  so  much 
need  as  the  constant  and  widely-extended  sujDply  of  in- 
telligence on  the  world  beyond  them.  It  must  be  long 
before  Christianity  can  become  well  understood  by  them. 
Missionary  efforts  must  be  greatly  increased,  and  the 
agency  of  the  press  must  be  well  worked,  before  they  will 
be  freed  from  many  wild  misconceptions.  It  is  constantly 
said  in  China,  that  medicine  in  the  form  of  pills  is  admini- 
stered to  all  Christian  converts ;  and  that  when  a  person 
is  dying,  his  eyes  are  taken  out  by  the  priest.  One  writer 
sees  in  the  works  of  healing  performed  by  Jesus  something 
similar  to  the  cures  effected  by  Hwato,  a  celebrated  Chinese 
physician  who  lived  in  the  third  century,  but  entirely  fails 
to  notice  that  their  object  was  to  prove  anything  with 
recfard  to  the  character  of  Jesus  Christ.     It  never  occurred 


NEED  OF  CHRISTIAN  TEACHING.  165 

to  him  to  consider  what  a  miracle  is  for.  He  therefore 
refuses  to  rank  Jesus  with  the  sages  who  have  limited 
themselves  to  moral  teaching.  In  that  country  a  far  wider 
diffusion  of  knowledge  respecting  the  facts  and  doctrines  of 
Christianity  is  needed  to  put  the  natives  in  a  position  to 
judge  of  its  claims  as  the  only  Divine  religion. 


(  i66  ) 


CHAPTER   XIV. 

STATE   OF   ROMAN   CATHOLIC   MISSIONS. 

The  state  of  Eoman  Catholic  missions  in  China  deserves  to 
be  studied  by  those  who  are  interested  in  the  spread  of 
scriptural  Christianity  in  that  country.  These  missions 
have  met  with  great  success.  Abbe  Hue,  in  his  work  on 
Christianity  in  China,  has  given  an  interesting  account  of 
their  commencement  and  progress  to  the  reign  of  Kanghe. 
Many  persons  of  rank  became  converts,  and  chapels  and 
churches  multiplied  fast  in  the  cities  and  villages.  When 
times  of  persecution  arrived  and  court  favour  was  with- 
drawn, doctors  of  literature  and  masters  of  arts  ceased  to 
tread  in  the  steps  of  Seu-kwang-ke  and  other  Christian 
converts  holding  high  office  in  the  State.  At  present  the 
work  of  the  missions  lies  much  with  the  humbler  classes. 
There  are  indeed  men  of  property  among  the  converts  still, 
but  they  are  not  known  beyond  the  community  to  which 
they  belong.  In  days  of  persecution,  during  the  present 
century,  there  have  been  not  a  few  among  these  men  who 
have  courageously  endured  banishment  to  Western  Tartary, 
or  loss  of  property,  for  the  sake  of  their  religious  belief. 

The  introduction  of  the  Protestant  religion  has  induced 
the  European  Catholic  missionaries,  who  are  about  three 
hundred  in  number,  to  give  certain  precautionary  directions 
to  their  converts  !  They  have  told  them  that  the  religion 
of  the  English  is  only  three  hundred  years  old ;  that  their 
own  is  the  true  and  ancient  form  of  Christianity  ;  and  that 
salvation  is  only  to  be  found  within  the  pale  of  the 
Catholic  Church.  Catholic  converts  frequently  meet  Pro- 
testant missionaries,  and  state  to  them  that  their  religion 


CATHOLIC  TEACHING.  167 

began  with  King  Henry  VIII.  of  England.  He  commenced 
it  because  he  was  not  allowed  by  the  Pope  to  divorce  his 
wife.  Such  is  the  account  of  Protestant  Christianity 
which  has  been  industriously  disseminated  far  and  wide 
among  the  converts  in  the  province  of  Keangnan,  with  the 
state  of  whom  I  have  had  the  opportunity  of  becoming 
best  acquainted. 

Among  the  converts  sometimes  met  with  are  inquiring 
men,  fond  of  reading.  Such  a  person  came  on  one  occa- 
sion to  seek  an  interview  with  a  missionary,  who  had 
recently  arrived  in  his  boat,  in  one  of  the  interior  cities  in 
that  province.  He  stated,  in  the  conversation  that  then 
ensued,  that  he  had  read  many  Buddhist  and  Taouist 
books,  although  the  "  spiritual  fathers  "  recommended  the 
converts  not  to  do  so.  He  did  not  like  this  restriction, 
and,  feeling  confidence  in  himself  that  he  could  distinguish 
the  true  from  the  false,  he  did  not  fear  to  read  them.  He 
was  asked  his  opinion  on  the  Buddhist  doctrine,  that  all 
things  are  mere  emptiness,  and  exist  only  in  imagination. 
He  had  evidently  read  Buddhist  statements  of  this  sort 
with  the  impression  that  they  are  metaphorical  and  not 
to  be  taken  literally,  for  he  answered  that  it  was  quite 
correct  to  hold  that  all  in  the  Avorld  is  vanity  and  a  dream. 
He  then  inquired  if  it  was  true  that  a  king  of  England 
separated  from  the  Church  of  Eome  because  he  was  not 
permitted  to  marry  as  he  pleased.  He  was  informed  that 
the  king  did  so,  but  it  was  on  a  different  account  that  the 
people  separated.  The  reason  of  their  separating  was,  that 
they  had  become  convinced  from  the  Scriptures  that  they 
ought  to  do  so.  He  then  asked  when  our  English  religion 
really  began,  and  was  told  that  there  had  been  a  Christian 
Church  in  Britain  from  the  second  century,  and  that  it 
was  then  and  for  long  after  quite  independent  of  Piome 
and  the  Pope.  He  replied,  that  he  could  not  see  how  this 
could  be,  his  information  being  entirely  different.  He  was 
also  surprised  to  learn  that  celibacy  for  all  priests  was  only 
required  f(jr  the  first  time  in  the  Piomish  Church  in  the 


1 68  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

eleventh  century.  He  had  read  the  books  of  the  early 
Jesuit  missionaries,  Eicci,  Jules  Aloni,  and  others,  but 
not  any  of  the  writings  of  the  Apostles.  No  translation  of 
the  Scriptures  has  ever  been  published  in  China  by  the 
Catholics. 

Although  a  professed  Christian,  he  appeared  to  believe 
in  many  Buddhist  legends.  He  regarded  Kwan-yin  as  a 
real  personage,  the  daughter  of  a  certain  king,  as  stated  in 
one  of  the  fictitious  accounts  of  that  divinity.  The  mis- 
sionary, seeing  that  he  was  to  a  considerable  extent  a 
believer  in  Buddhism,  advised  him  not  to  read  the  books 
of  that  system,  but  ineffectually ;  for  he  said  he  felt  no 
danger,  and  wished,  for  curiosity's  sake,  to  examine  various 
religious  systems. 

In  the  province  of  Keangsoo  there  are  about  75,000 
converts.^  A  great  portion  of  these  are  villagers.  A 
small  chapel  is  erected  in  villages  and  hamlets,  usually  in 
a  retired  situation.  Service  is  held  here  on  Lord's-day 
mornings.  After  this  service,  the  poor  are  allowed  by  a 
dispensation  from  the  Pope  to  work  in  the  fields  or  at  their 
other  employments.  Those  whose  worldly  circumstances 
are  good  abstain  from  work  on  the  Lord's-day.  Foreign 
priests  visit  these  village  stations  four  or  five  times  in  a 
year.  In  their  absence  the  service  is  conducted  by  natives. 
When  these  Eoman  Catholic  villagers  are  asked  who  it  is 
that  forgives  sins,  they  will  frequently  reply,  the  priest. 
If  the  inquiry  be  made  through  whom  it  is  that  they  ex- ' 
pect  to  be  saved  in  heaven,  some  will  say,  through  the  aid 
of  Mary;  others,  through  the  merits  of  Jesus  Christ. 
They  are  taught  to  repeat  the  creed  and  a  small  catechism 
composed  in  a  plain,  unadorned  style.  On  the  walls  of 
the  chapels  are  hung  fourteen  pictures  representing  the 
sufferings  of  our  Lord,  after  the  usual  manner  of  Eoman 
Catholic  edifices.  The  altar  is  ornamented  with  artificial 
flowers  and  such-like  appendages.  Sometimes  the  relics 
of  a  martyr  are  preserved  in  the  altar.     There  is  often  a 

3  In  1858. 


CATHOLIC  SCHOOLS.  .  169 

school  in  connection  with  these  village  chapels.  The 
ordinary  converts  residing  at  the  country  stations  are 
generally  civil  to  foreign  visitors,  but  if  native  ordained 
priests  happen  to  be  there,  they  are  very  hostile  in  their 
manner  to  those  whom  they  find  to  be  Protestants.  They 
are  able  to  speak  a  little  Latin,  taught  them  at  Macao  or 
at  some  of  the  seminaries  for  training  native  priests  in  the 
interior  of  the  country,  and  they  resort  to  that  medium  of 
expressing  their  ideas  when  they  do  not  wish  the  neigh- 
bours to  hear  what  is  said  in  conversation.  When  encased 
in  discussion  on  questions  of  theological  controversy,  they 
usually  prefer  the  Latin  language. 

In  North  China,  when  the  converts  in  any  heathen 
village  raise  half  the  money  themselves  for  a  church,  the 
European  priests  find  the  other  half,  and  a  church  is  accord- 
ingly built. 

The  Catholics  have  not  a  few  well-conducted  schools  in 
China.  That  at  Seu-kia-wei  is  well  known  to  those  who 
have  visited  Shanghai.  It  is  seven  miles  from  that  place. 
Many  of  the  pupils  are  taught  the  art  of  moulding  images 
in  clay,  sculpture,  &c.  It  caused  us  some  painful  reflec- 
tions to  see  them  forming  images  of  Joseph  and  Mary  and 
other  Scripture  personages,  in  the  same  way  that  idol- 
makers  in  the  neighbouring  towns  were  moulding  Buddhas 
and  gods  of  war  and  riches,  destined  too  to  be  honoured  in 
much  the  same  manner.  With  such  exceptions  as  this, 
we  could  not  help  admiring  the  arrangements  of  the  school, 
which  appeared  to  be  large  and  efficient.  There  is  a  hand- 
some modern  chapel  in  connection  with  it. 

Another  school  that  I  saw  with  a  friend  at  Ningpo  was 
one  of  crreat  interest.  It  was  a  school  for  deserted  children 
of  the  female  sex.  There  were  seventy  of  them  at  the  time 
enjoying  its  privileges.  The  buildings  were  new  and  very 
extensive.  They  were  in  an  open  situation  outside  the 
south  gate  of  the  city.  Seven  French  Sisters  of  Mercy 
conducted  the  school.  They  received  us  most  kindly,  and 
permitted  us  to  inspect  the  whole  establishment.     They 


I70  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

appeared  to  be  much  attached  to  the  children,  whose 
apartments  were  well  supplied  with  crucifixes  and  pictures 
of  the  Virgin.  The  sisters  wore  their  regular  costume  of 
black  serge,  which  looked  very  uncomfortable  and  unsuited 
to  the  season,  the  hot  weather  not  having  terminated  at 
the  time  of  our  visit.  They  showed  us  the  graves  of  some 
of  their  companions  in  the  adjacent  garden.  They  in- 
formed us  that  they  did  not  employ  native  schoolmasters 
or  schoolmistresses  to  instruct  the  children  in  readinof,  but 
they  learned  the  Chinese  written  character  themselves, 
and  then  taught  their  scholars.  This  is  a  proof  of  no  little 
resolution  and  energy  on  the  part  of  the  sisters,  for  the 
acquirement  of  the  art  of  reading  Chinese  is  difficult,  and 
it  is  the  custom  in  Protestant  and  Catholic  schools  for 
boys  to  obtain  native  aid  in  teaching  the  pupils  to  read  the 
native  books.  The  sisters  proved  to  us  their  competence 
by  reading  some  passages  in  a  simple  Chinese  style  from 
the  Christian  class-books  used  in  the  school.  Attached  to 
the  establishment  is  a  free  dispensary  for  the  neighbouring 
poor. 

To  assist  in  the  training  seminaries  for  native  priests  is 
one  of  the  most  important  duties  of  the  Catholic  mission- 
aries. A  large  number  only  can  meet  the  wants  of  their 
numerous  stations,  scattered  through  all  the  eighteen  pro- 
vinces of  the  Empire.  Most  of  the  jDupils  in  the  seminaries 
are  received  when  very  young.  The  consequence  often  is, 
that  on  growing  up  they  are  unwilling  to  submit  to  the 
restraints  which  the  life  of  a  priest  would  impose  on  them. 
I  knew  one  who  after  receiving  his  education  wished  to 
marry,  and  not  to  become  a  priest.  The  European  mis- 
sionary in  charge  of  the  seminary  frustrated  his  hopes  by 
inducing  his  intended  wife  to  enter  a  nunnery.  He  left 
the  Catholics  after  this,  and  entered  the  employment  of 
Protestant  missionaries  as  a  teacher  of  the  lanOTaoe.  For 
this  occupation  his  knowledge  of  Latin  was  of  some  advan- 
tage. He  still  continued  to  pray  to  Mary,  although  he 
professed  attachment  to  Protestant  views  in  most  respects. 


CATHOLIC  CONVERTS.  171 

He  was  asked  why  lie  did  not  give  up  the  worship  of  the 
Virgin ;  to  this  he  replied,  that  he  could  not  abandon  it 
without  a  great  sacrifice  of  feeling,  having  been  always 
accustomed  to  it.  "  But,"  he  was  informed,  "  every  being 
except  God  is  forbidden  to  be  worshipped."  "  In  honour- 
ing the  mother,"  he  said,  "  I  honour  the  Son."  "  You  may 
honour  her,"  said  the  missionary,  "but  you  should  not 
pray  to  her.  She  cannot  hear  prayers  and  answer  them, 
as  God  can,  and  as  Jesus  can."  In  answer  to  this  he 
related  an  anecdote,  which  led  him,  as  he  stated,  to  place  _ 
great  trust  in  Mary: — Wlien  at  the  seminary  he  had  been 
accused  of  a  crime,  of  which  the  real  perpetrator  was  one 
of  his  fellow-pupils.  He  prayed  to  Mary  that  the  true 
criminal  might  be  discovered  in  seven  days,  and  his  own 
reputation  vindicated.  The  prayer  was  answered  within 
the  necessary  time,  and  he  felt  such  confidence  ever  after 
in  the  efficacy  of  prayers  to  the  Virgin,  that  he  could  not 
think  of  omitting  them  in  his  morning  and  evening  devo- 
tions. It  was  suggested  to  him  that  he  ought  to  refer  the 
interference  on  his  behalf  that  had  occurred  to  the  pro- 
vidence of  God,  not  to  that  of  the  Virgin.  We  were  never 
told  in  Scripture  to  pray  to  her,  nor  could  we  expect  her 
to  answer  prayer.  He  replied,  that  in  this  instance  his 
prayer,  which  had  been  remarkably  answered,  was  ad- 
dressed to  Mary  and  not  to  God.  "So,"  said  the  mis- 
sionary, "  may  the  sailor  say  of  his  prayer  to  Tecn-liov\  the 
*  heavenly  queen.'  He  supposes  that  goddess  to  preside 
over  the  sea,  and  he  supplicates  her  protection  from 
storms.  To  her  he  ascribes  his  safety,  though  he  ought  to 
refer  it  to  the  providence  of  God."  "But,"  he  rephed, 
"  Mary  is  the  mother  of  Jesus,  and  has  intercessory  power 
with  God,  which  Teen-how-shing-moo,  '  the  holy  mother, 
queen  of  heaven,'  has  not.  Jesus  honoured  His  mother," 
he  added,  "  on  the  cross,  and  we  must  honour  her  also." 
His  attention  was  drawn  to  the  second  commandment, 
which  forbade  the  worship  of  aU  images;  but  he  would 
not  admit  the   inconsistency  of  the   worship   of  Mary's 


172  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

imaee  with  this  commandment,  becanse  the  kind  of  wor- 
ship  offered  to  her  was  different  from  that  offered  to  God. 

The  numbers  of  the  native  Catholic  commimity  in  China 
were  kept  up  previously  to  the  last  fifteen  years  by  teach- 
ing within  the  community  itself.  Few  converts,  compara- 
tively, were  made  from  the  surrounding  heathen.  The 
successive  persecutions  instituted  by  the  Government 
checked  the  aggressive  efforts  of  the  missions,  and  chilled 
the  zeal  of  those  who  were  contemplating  the  adoption  of 
the  Catholic  faith.  As  the  missionaries  arrived  from 
Europe,  they  were  conveyed  secretly  into  the  interior, 
under  the  care  of  converts,  and  passed  their  time  after- 
wards entirely  in  the  society  of  the  members  of  the  com- 
munity. Strangers  were  not  permitted  to  know  of  their 
presence.  The  boatmen  or  chair-bearers  who  conducted 
them  from  place  to  place  were  native  Christians.  So  also 
were  their  servants  at  the  residences  provided  for  them. 
On  their  reaching  any  station  to  perform  their  official 
duties,  information  was  quickly  communicated  to  all  the 
residents  who  regarded  them  as  their  spiritual  guides,  and 
they  then  assembled  to  receive  their  blessing.  It  was  and 
is  indispensable  on  their  entering  the  presence  of  the 
European  priest,  that  they  should  perform  a  prostration 
before  him.  N"o  one  outside  of  the  community  was 
allowed  to  see  the  foreign  priest  till  he  had  gone  through 
a  course  of  instruction  under  the  native  catechists  and 
priests.  When  a  heathen  was  ready  for  baptism  he  might 
have  an  interview  with  the  "spiritual  father  from  the 
Western  Ocean,"  but  not  usually  sooner.  This  circumspec- 
tion was  rendered  necessary  by  tlie  state  of  the  laws  in 
China,  which  did  not  then  permit  the  entrance  of  foreigners 
into  the  interior  of  the  country.  Very  irksome  was  the 
restraint  under  which  foreign  priests  were  placed,  for  it 
was  not  considered  safe  for  them  to  be  noticed  by  any  eyes 
except  those  of  trusted  friends.  Sometimes  when  a 
rumour  was  spread  of  their  presence  in  a  walled  city,  they 
were   conveyed   in   a   sedan   chair   out  of  the  gate,  and 


OPINION  AMONG  CONVERTS.  ^i^:, 

brought  in  again  Ly  the  gate  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
city.  This  was  done  to  induce  the  belief  that  they  had 
taken  their  departure.  They  usually,  however,  avoided 
cities  altogether,  and  remained  in  the  country,  where 
accommodations  were  provided  for  them  under  the  super- 
intendence of  the  converts.  They  were  liable  to  ejection 
at  any  moment  from  their  temporary  lodging-place,  should 
suspicion  be  excited  and  inquiry  be  made  for  them.  Hue 
speaks,  in  his  "Travels  in  Tartary  and  Tibet,"  of  the 
enjoyment  occasioned  to  him  and  his  companion  by  their 
sense  of  freedom  when  they  had  passed  beyond  the  Great 
Wall  into  Tartary,  because  there  they  could  allow  them- 
selves to  be  seen  without  fear  of  capture.  In  these  cir- 
cumstances the  gathering-in  of  new  converts  was  neces- 
sarily left  to  the  zeal  and  efficiency  of  the  native  converts. 
I  had  a  discussion  on  one  occasion  with  a  shopkeeper 
who  was  on  the  point  of  becoming  a  Eoman  Catholic. 
He  was  strongly  prejudiced  against  Protestantism.  He 
insisted,  that  in  propagating  a  religion  it  was  essential  to 
have  a  visible  earthly  chief  from  whom  to  receive  orders. 
Our  system  was  defective,  because  it  was  a  system  without 
a  head.  It  was  stated  to  him  that  Christ  was  our  Head, 
and  that  we  did  not  need  any  man  to  wield  supreme 
power  in  our  religion,  just  as  in  the  religion  of  Confucius 
it  was  not  found  requisite  to  have  any  person  at  the  head 
of  it.  As  to  his  assertion  that  our  religion  could  not  be 
spread  without  submission  to  some  visible  head,  he  should 
recollect  that  the  religions  of  Buddha  and  Confucius  were 
able  to  subsist  in  China  in  the  same  circumstances.  He 
then  inquired  what  authority  we  had  to  preach.  He  was  in- 
formed that  men  are  miserable,  and  in  need  of  the  Gospel  to 
render  them  happy.  Any  one  that  knew  the  Gospel  might 
preach  it,  and  how  could  it  be  wrong  to  try  to  save  men? 
He  remarked,  that  if  men  undertook  this  office  tliey  ought 
at  least  to  be  self-denying  enough  to  refrain  from  marriage. 
A  passage  was  pointed  out  to  him  in  the  Gospel  of  Mat- 
thew, which  showed  that  the  Apostle  Peter  had  a  wife; 


174  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

but  be  observed  that  he  coiild  not  know  the  book  to  be 
correct.  He  was  recommended  to  take  it  and  examine  it 
for  himself;  and  he  might  ask  his  priest  if  it  was  a  book 
to  be  trusted.  He  declined  to  do  this,  and  insisted  that 
Protestants  were  in  the  wrong. 

A  few  days  after  this,  at  a  town  not  far  from  the  scene 
of  this  discussion,  I  had  an  unexpected  opportunity  of 
ascertaining  the  strength  of  the  Eomanists  in  country 
places  in  the  province  of  Keangsoo.  The  Shanghai  river, 
before  it  reaches  that  city,  at  twenty  miles  south  of  it, 
bends  to  the  westward.  Our  boat,  after  proceeding  up  the 
stream  fifteen  miles  beyond  this  point,  turned  up  a  broad 
canal  which  entered  it  by  its  right  bank.  In  that  great 
alluvial  plain  canals  are  very  numerous.  Tliey  need  no 
locks  or  sluices,  the  land  being  level,  and  if  their  course 
be  followed,  towns  having  a  large  population  are  found  on 
the  banks  of  all  of  them.  Tliey  are  the  market-towns  for 
the  produce  of  the  neighbouring  country,  consisting  of 
wheat,  rice,  cotton,  beans,  indigo,  and  other  articles.  On 
arriving  at  one  of  them,  at  a  short  distance  from  the 
junction  of  the  canal  with  the  river,  we  went  ashore  with 
Testaments  and  tracts  for  distribution  among  the  respect- 
able inhabitants  of  the  town.  While  thus  employed,  a 
French  priest  unexpectedly  made  his  appearance,  calling 

himself  Pere  .     One  or  two  native  Ptomanists  had 

noticed  our  arrival,  and  proceeded  to  report  the  fact  to 
this  priest.  After  a  few  words  of  ceremony,  he  asked  us 
why  we  came  there.  He  Avas  informed  that  we  wished  to 
teach  the  heathen  inhabitants  of  the  town  the  truths  of 
Christianity  and  the  folly  and  wickedness  of  their  super- 
stition. He  replied,  that  he  had  resided  there  for  many 
years,  and  it  was  not  right  of  us  to  interfere  with  his 
labours.  In  answer  to  our  inquiries,  he  stated  that  there 
were  about  200  Christians  under  his  care,  while  there 
were  7000  or  8000  inhabitants  in  the  town.  "We  then 
stated,  that  the  pagan  proportion  of  the  population  being 
so  large,  there  was  great  need  of  the  public  preaching  of 


RENCONTRE  WITH  A  FRENCH  PRIEST.         175 

the  Gospel  there,  and  we  understood  that  he  and  his 
fellow-missionaries  did  not  teach  in  public.  Could  it  be 
wrong  for  the  doctrine  of  salvation  to  be  proclaimed  there  ? 
He  said  that  this  was  not  wrong  ;  but  what  authority  had 
we  to  teach  at  aU  ?  He  was  reminded  of  the  Saviour's 
commission  to  His  disciples,  "Go  ye  into  all  the  world  and 
preach  the  Gospel  to  every  creature."  A  crowd  of  inter- 
ested listeners  had  collected  around  us,  while  this  dialogue 
proceeded  in  the  dialect  of  the  place.  The  priest,  observ- 
ing the  attention  which  they  paid  to  it,  turned  to  them 
and  said,  "  I  have  long  been  residing  here ;  you  can  trust 
me.  Do  not  listen  to  a  new  doctrine  which  comes  to  you 
without  authority.  You  should  not  believe  in  the  teach- 
ing of  these  new-comers."  He  was  requested  not  to  be 
angry  with  us  for  trying  to  do  good  to  the  heathen.  He 
then  complained  that  a  passage  occurred  in  a  book  pub- 
lished by  Protestant  missionaries  which  spoke  disparagingly 
of  the  Eoman  Catholic  faith.  He  was,  however,  unable  to 
state  in  what  book  he  had  seen  it,  or  what  had  been  said. 
The  passage  had  been  shown  to  him  several  years  before, 
and  he  had  forgotten  the  particulars.  I  expressed  regret  that 
his  memory  did  not  serve  him  better,  and  offered  him  what 
books  I  had  for  examination,  that  he  might  convince  him- 
self there  was  nothing  in  them  derogatory  to  the  Catholic 
religion.     He  declined  this,  and  soon  afterwards  retired. 

The  Catholic  missionaries  find  themselves  in  a  position 
of  difficulty  from  then*  not  having  the  same  literary  stand- 
ing that  distinguished  their  predecessors  in  China  in  the 
sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries.  Perhaps  it  is  thought 
that  there  is  no  need  for  new  efforts  in  science,  since  the 
Chinese  Government  has  ceased  to  employ  Jesuits  to  super- 
intend the  preparation  of  the  calendar  and  to  calculate 
eclipses  and  the  places  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  At  any 
rate,  the  modern  missionaries  write  no  new  works  on 
science  or  religion,  but  content  themselves  with  the  use  of 
the  old  ones.  Fully  occupied  with  pastoral  work,  they 
seem  to  devote  little  attention  to  Hterature,  so  tliat  they 


176  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

fail  to  obtain  that  place  in  public  estimation  that  was 
held  by  many  of  the  Jesuits  whose  names  illustrate  the 
early  annals  of  the  Catholic  mission  in  Cliina.  It  would 
be  an  advantage  to  them  in  more  ways  than  one  if  they 
had  among  them  men  of  learning  and  literary  ability. 
The  Chinese  are  very  reluctant  to  read  what  is  not  com- 
posed in  an  elegant  style,  and  it  is  important  to  meet  the 
taste  of  the  readers,  as  well  as  can  be  done,  by  putting 
into  their  hands  such  works  as  will  not  offend  their  sense 
of  literary  propriety.  A  good  knowledge  of  the  written 
language  is  needed  to  give  facility  in  conversation  \\dth 
the  educated,  and  in  preparing  new  works.  The  old 
scientific  treatises  of  their  predecessors  are  based  on  obso- 
lete theories,  and  need  to  be  superseded  by  newer  and 
better.  They  taught  the  Ptolemaic  system  of  the  universe, 
instead  of  that  of  Copernicus  and  Newton.  The  natural 
philosophy  promulgated  by  Ricci  supposed  the  four  ele- 
ments— fire,  air,  earth,  and  water — to  be  the  original 
principles  of  all  natural  objects.  Great  changes  have 
occurred  in  the  mathematical  sciences  since  the  translations 
of  the  early  Jesuit  missionaries  were  published  in  China. 
With  their  present  want  of  attention  to  these  things,  the 
Eomanist  missionaries  cannot  acquire  the  status  that  they 
would  otherwise  have,  and  fail  to  exert  an  influence  on 
that  large  class  of  persons  in  China  who  know  anything 
of  the  student  life. 

Under  the  new  treaty  now  in  force,  according  to  which 
foreigners  have  the  right  of  visiting  whatever  part  of  the 
country  they  please,  as  might  have  been  expected,  new 
energy  has  been  infused  into  the  Catholic  missions.  The 
missionaries  have  been  able  to  abandon  their  strict  incog- 
nito, and  adopt  new  measures  for  increasing  the  number  of 
their  converts.  Permission  is  enjoyed  to  travel  and  reside 
in  all  parts  of  the  country,  and  this  permission  is  practi- 
cally so  interpreted  as  to  render  legal  the  longer  or  shorter 
stay  which  the  Eomanist  missionaries  make  in  rotation  at 
the  stations  under  their  charge. 


POLICY  OF  THE  JESUITS.  177 

They  will  scarcely  attempt  again  to  obtain  power  at 
court  and  among  the  literary  class  in  Cliina.  They  suc- 
ceeded remarkably  at  first  by  this  policy.  But  it  was 
dangerous  to  trust  to  court  favour.  They  felt  the  reaction 
to  be  very  severe  when  honour  and  power  were  exchanged 
for  the  storm  of  persecution.  Their  scientific  attainments 
kept  them  in  their  places  in  the  imperial  tribunal  of 
astronomy  till  1822.  The  last  Jesuits  employed  at  Peking 
were  then  sent  from  that  city  to  Macao,  and  they  were 
desired  to  return  home,  the  services  of  foreign  astronomers 
being  no  longer  required  by  the  Son  of  Heaven.  Eeport 
says  that  the  last  three  Jesuits  who  received  the  emolu- 
ments of  office  as  servants  of  the  Chinese  Emperor,  wanted 
the  power  to  make  themselves  valued  as  men  of  scientific 
ability. 

This  is  another  instance  of  the  results  of  the  worldly 
policy  of  the  Jesuits.  Their  first  splendid  successes  have 
almost  invariably  been  followed  by  ignominious  failure. 

They  have  prospered  better  in  the  more  spiritual  part  of 
their  work  in  China.  While  the  scientific  treatises  written 
by  the  early  Jesuits  are  becoming  useless  on  accomit  of 
their  obsolete  and  erroneous  principles,  the  converts  they 
made  among  the  poor  have  transmitted  to  their  descend- 
ants a  faith  more  or  less  enlightened  in  the  Catholic  form 
of  Christianity.  At  the  present  time  there  are  many  in- 
structed and  zealous  members  of  their  community,  mixed, 
as  might  be  expected,  with  not  a  few  nominal  Christians 
of  a  much  inferior  kind. 


10 


M 


(  178  ) 


CHAPTER    XV. 

MOHAMMEDANS,  JEWS,   AND   WOO-WEI   BUDDHISTS. 

The  number  of  Moliammedans  in  China  is  mucli  larger 
than  that  of  the  Catholics,  or  any  other  of  the  smaller 
religious  communities  in  that  country.  They  have  been 
there  during  a  very  long  period,  for  some  of  them  arrived 
within  a  century  after  the  era  of  IVIahomet.  But  it  was 
principally  in  the  Sung  and  Ming  dynasties,  a.d.  iooo  to 
A.D.  1600,  that  the  colonies  of  these  religionists  entered 
China. 

They  are  most  numerous  in  the  North  of  China,  where  in 
some  parts  they  form  a  third  of  the  population.  Their 
mosques  are  called  tsing-chin-sze,  "  pure  and  true  temple." 
The  name  of  their  sect  is  Hwei-hwei,  which  is  derived 
from  Ouigour.  They  call  God  Choo,  "  Lord,"  or  Chin-choo, 
"  true  Lord."  In  race  they  are  predominantly  Turkish  and 
Persian. 

Their  avoidance  of  pork  keeps  them  distinct  from  the 
other  Chinese,  and  the  habit  they  have  in  some  northern 
cities  of  placing  the  words  Hwei-hwei,  "  Mohammedan,"  or 
Kiau-mun,  "  religious  sect,"  on  their  shop  signs  and  over 
their  doors,  is  an  indication  that  they  wish  to  be  exclusive, 
and  not  to  be  regarded  as  one  with  the  rest  of  the  nation. 
This  spirit  of  exclusiveness,  and  the  opposition  they  always 
express  to  the  idolatry  prevailing  among  their  neighbours, 
has  not  prevented  them  from  entering  into  the  service  of 
the  Government,  The  road  to  office  is  not  in  China  closed 
to  adherents  of  particular  religions.  There  is  no  Test  Act 
there.  Roman  Catholics  as  well  as  Mohammedans  have 
held  high  office  in  China.    But  there  are  many  duties  to  be 


CHINESE  MOHAMMEDANISM.  179 

performed  by  those  who  occupy  most  Government  offices 
which  w^oukl  be  an  effectual  bar  to  the  acceptance  of  such 
offices  by  a  conscientious  Christian.  The  sacrifices  to 
Confucius,  the  worship  of  the  State  gods,  and  many  public 
acts  which  are  encouragements  to  idolatry,  direct  and 
indirect,  cannot  be  omitted  by  the  resident  officers  in  a 
Chinese  city.  Yet  it  is  difficult  in  China  to  resist  the 
temptation  to  imitate  the  tolerant  and  latitudinarian  spirit 
of  the  Confucian  system.  The  Chinese  love,  not  uniform- 
ity, but  conformity.  Sects  that  have  when  they  entered 
China  been  very  exclusive,  have  gradually  adopted  the 
plausible  liberality  of  the  followers  of  Confucius,  who  may 
conform  to  the  customs  of  other  religions  without  at  all 
compromising  their  consistency.  Conscientiousness  has  no 
high  value  among  them.  It  is  not  reckoned  so  good  as  the 
politeness  that  admits  the  excellences  of  other  systems. 

The  mosques  are  erected  in  the  Chinese  style  of  archi- 
tecture, mixed  with  Western  peculiarities.  The  principal 
hall  for  preaching  and  praying  is  provided  with  a  pulpit, 
and  has  five  naves  or  aisles,  separated  by  three  rows  of 
pillars.  It  is  ornamented  with  Arabic  and  Chinese  inscrip- 
tions painted  on  monumental  boards.  Behind  it  is  the 
chamber  for  holding  the  sacred  books.  Service  is  performed 
every  Friday  at  two  o'clock. 

Not  much  use  is  made  of  translations  among  them.  The 
Koran  is  read  in  Arabic,  with  which  the  native  Moollahs 
are  familiar.  This  language,  as  well  as  Persian,  is  studied 
in  the  schools  attached  to  the  mosques.  The  knowledge  of 
the  principal  features  of  their  religion  is  obtained  by 
Chinese  readers  from  treatises  of  greater  or  less  extent  in 
the  language  of  the  country. 

They  keep  up  the  practice  of  circumcision.  This  is 
made  indispensable  to  admission  to  their  religion.  But 
they  are  certainly  not  so  attentive  to  daily  prayer  as  other 
ISIohammedans.  I  have  met  with  many  of  them  who 
altogether  neglect  this  habit. 

They  speak  of  Jesus  under  the  name  Urh-sah;  but  they 


i8o  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

will  not  allow  that  He  is  more  than  one  of  the  48,000 
prophets,  or  of  the  six  great  prophets,  that  preceded  Ma- 
homet. Of  course  they  deny  His  divinity.  Wei-yuen,  a 
Chinese  author  already  cited,  in  giving  an  account  of  the 
Mohammedan  religion,  says  that  Adam,  the  first  man, 
receiving  the  commands  of  the  true  Lord,  transmitted  them 
to  Seth ;  Seth  to  Noah ;  Noah  to  Ibrahim ;  '  Ibrahim  to 
Ishmael ;  Ishmael  to  David ;  and  David  to  Urh-sah.  Urh- 
sah  died,  and  with  him  the  line  of  tradition  was  broken. 
The  orthodox  faith  was  lost.  Heresies  sprang  into  vigor- 
ous life.  But  after  600  years  Mahomet  was  born.  He 
alone  stands  in  the  highest  rank,  while  Noah,  Abraham, 
Moses,  David,  and  Jesus  occupy  the  second  class.  When 
Mahomet  was  born,  the  words  "  Prophet  of  Heaven " 
were  seen  inscribed  on  his  breast.  He  wrought  many 
miracles,  but  his  greatest  work  was  to  correct  and  repub- 
lish the  inspired  revelation  from  the  true  Lord,  which  had 
been  corrupted  during  the  long  period  of  time  between 
Jesus  and  Mahomet. 

The  Chinese  Mohammedans  appear  to  be  very  much  cut 
off  from  their  co-religionists,  and  none  now  make  the  pil- 
grimage to  Mecca.  Yet  the  same  Chinese  author  says  that 
every  believer  in  this  religion  is  bound  to  do  so.  To  what- 
ever country  he  may  belong,  he  must,  once  at  least  in  the 
course  of  his  life,  make  the  journey  to  worship  at  the 
Prophet's  tomb,  and  touch  the  sacred  stone. 

He  condemns  the  Mohammedans  for  borrowing  from  the 
Buddhists,  a  fault  of  which  they  have  not  been  more  guilty 
than  the  Christians,  whom  he  charges  with  the  same  crime. 
The  Mohammedans,  he  says,  are  like  the  followers  of  Con- 
fucius in  worshipping  God;  but  they  have  copied  their 
prayers  and  their  abstinence  from  different  kinds  of  food, 
their  notions  upon  retribution  in  a  future  life,  almsgiving, 
and  such-like  unimportant  teachings,  from  the  Buddhists. 
They  were  added  as  supplemental  to  doctrines  of  a  higher 
class,  and  they  certainly,  so  he  thinks,  do  no  harm  to 
mankind. 


JEWS  A  T  KAI-FUNG-FOO.  1 8 1 

He  points  out  what  he  considers  faults  and  inconsis- 
tencies in  Mahomet.  He  had  given  his  daughter  to  Ms 
elder  brother's  son  in  marriage.  This  appears  to  the 
Chinese  to  be  unnatural  and  sinful.  It  has  been  the 
invariable  custom  in  China,  since  a  thousand  years  be- 
fore the  birth  of  our  Saviour,  to  abstain  from  intermar- 
riage with  a  family  having  the  same  surname,  even  though 
there  should  be  no  relationship.  The  Mohammedans 
compare  the  prophets  to  a  tree.  They  are  the  stem, 
branches,  leaves,  and  flowers,  while  Mahomet  is  the  fruit. 
He  then  ought  to  be  perfect  in  wisdom  and  in  virtue. 
We  do  not  find  this  to  be  true,  says  the  Chinese  critic. 
When  he  went  into  the  market-place  of  Medina  and  saw 
slayers  of  oxen  there,  he  asked  them  why  they  did  not 
change  their  trade.  "Because,"  they  replied,  "we  have 
no  other  means  to  gain  a  living."  "  Slay  sheep,"  said  he, 
"  instead  of  oxen."  They  did  as  he  advised  them,  and  thus 
acting,  they  resembled  an  ancient  king  of  Tse,  who  was 
so  affected  by  the  sight  of  an  ox  trembling  at  the  prospect 
of  death,  that  he  ordered  the  animal  to  be  spared  and  a 
sheep  slain  instead.  Mencius,  the  well-known  Chinese 
sage,  was  a  witness  of  this  incident,  and  condemned  the 
king.  Our  Chinese  author  concludes  that  Mahomet,  not 
being  able  to  perceive  that  the  life  of  sheep  was  equally 
valuable  with  that  of  oxen,  could  not  be  perfect  in 
wisdom. 

The  little  colony  of  Jews  at  Kai-fung-foo  is  fast  declin- 
ing, and  has  no  influence  in  the  country.  They  have 
almost  forgotten  their  national  traditions.  I  had  oppor- 
tunities some  years  since  at  Shanghai  of  conversing  with 
three  individuals  of  this  community.  One  of  them  was  an 
educated  man,  a  literary  graduate,  who  would  be  well 
acquainted  with  the  state  of  opinion  among  his  fellow- 
religionists.  It  appeared  by  his  statements  that  the  know- 
ledge of  a  future  state,  and  of  the  prophecies  respecting  the 
Messiah,  have  almost  died  out  among  them.  It  was  not 
without  reason,  therefore,  that  the  Jews  of  England  and 


1 82  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

America  have  recently  attempted  to  open  a  communication 
with  them  for  the  purpose  of  educating  some  of  their 
youths  in  Europe,  inquiring  into  their  condition,  and,  if 
possible,  improving  it.  They  number  in  all  only  200 
individuals,  and  are  the  solitary  renmant  of  the  Jewish 
colonies  in  China.  The  last  among  them  that  could  read 
Hebrew  died  nearly  a  century  ago.  They  evince  no  wish 
to  recover  the  knowledge  of  that  language,  nor  do  they 
seem  to  have  any  idea  of  a  future  revival  of  their  condition, 
which  could  occur  only  in  the  case  that  the  Emperor  may 
be  induced  to  command  their  synagogue,  called,  after  the 
Mohammedan  style,  "  the  temple  of  the  pure  and  true,"  to 
be  rebuilt  at  the  public  expense. 

The  Jews  have  conformed  not  a  little  to  the  opinions  of 
the  Chinese,  as  is  shown  by  the  inscriptions  on  their 
tablets,  as  well  as  by  the  melancholy  fact  that  they  have 
no  notion,  except  a  Chinese  one,  of  a  future  state.  For 
God  they  use  the  word  teen,  "  heaven,"  without  maldng 
any  effort  to  keep  the  distinction  between  the  material 
firmament  and  the  Euler  of  heaven  prominent  before  the 
minds  of  their  people.  They  say  on  one  of  their  monu- 
mental inscriptions: — "Although  between  us  and  the 
doctrine  of  Confucius  there  are  differences  of  no  great 
importance,  yet  the  object  of  the  establishment  of  our 
religion  and  theirs  is  the  same.  They  are  intended  to 
inculcate  reverence  for  Heaven,  veneration  for  ancestors, 
loyalty  to  the  prince,  and  piety  to  parents,  the  five  human 
relations  and  the  five  constant  virtues."  The  whole  of  this 
phraseology  is  Chinese,  instead  of  being  Jewish.  This 
says  little  for  the  independence  and  confident  faith  in  the 
Divine  origin  of  their  religion  that  ought  to  distinguish 
the  posterity  of  Abraham. 

One  or  two  things  they  retain  of  their  national  charac- 
teristics, namely,  reverence  for  the  laiu  and  the  seventh- 
day  Sabbath.  They  had,  till  their  synagogue  was  destroyed, 
an  autumn  festival,  when  they  walked  in  procession  round 
the  hall  of  the  synagogue,  taking  the  rolls  of  the  law  with 


MOHAMMEDANS  IN  THE  CHINESE  ARMY.     183 

them.  It  was  called  the  festival  for  the  circulation  of  the 
law.  They  had  till  recently  twelve  copies  of  the  Penta- 
teuch ;  but  with  some  of  these  they  parted,  and  they  were 
brought  to  England  a  few  years  since.  They  do  not  appear 
to  be  very  ancient  copies.  They  have  also  many  single 
sections  of  the  law,  and  books  containing  the  genealogy  of 
their  families.  They  were  originally  a  large  colony  of 
seventy  families,  and  they  had  communication  with  their 
brethren  in  Persia  and  in  other  cities  of  China.  It  was 
apparently  in  the  Han  dynasty,  accordmg  to  the  opinion 
of  some,  B.C.  200  to  a.d.  220,  that  they  first  entered  China, 
but  they  had  new  accessions  from  Persia  at  a  much  later 
period. 

The  Mohammedans  in  China  regard  the  Jews  as  almost 
a  sect  of  their  own  religion.  Their  abstinence  from  pork, 
and  the  peculiarity  of  their  origin  and  their  religious  belief, 
lead  to  this.  The  Jews  distinguish  themselves  by  the 
name  Teaou-kin-keaou,  "  the  sect  of  those  that  pluck  out 
the  sinew,"  and  also  by  the  colour  of  their  turban  or  dis- 
tinctive cap ;  at  least,  the  Mohammedans  say  that  their 
own  turban  is  white,  while  that  of  the  Jews  is  blue.  Yet 
the  Mohammedans  in  Peking  wear  a  blue  cap  at  their 
religious  services.  The  common  costume  of  both  sects  in 
China  is  the  national  Chinese  dress ;  so  that  this  distinc- 
tion is  only  obvious  in  the  religious  attire  of  the  MooUah 
and  others  of  the  two  sects  when  they  appear  in  their 
appropriate  costume. 

The  Mohammedans  are  most  numerous  in  the  north  and 
west  and  at  Canton.  During  the  long  siege  of  Shanghai 
by  an  imperial  army  a  few  years  since,  I  conversed  with 
some  Mohammedans  from  the  province  of  Sze-chuen,  the 
most  westerly  part  of  China.  They  insisted  that  the 
Christian  religion  was  like  their  ow^n.  When  they  enter 
the  Chinese  army  they  are,  of  course,  allowed  to  retain 
their  own  religious  views  and  the  practice  with  regard  to 
diet  to  which  they  are  accustomed.  They  feel  a  unity  with 
us  on  the  subject  of  opposition  to  idolatry,  the  worship  of 


1 84  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

the  one  true  God,  and  the  doctrines  of  repentance  and 
future  retribution. 

To  judge  from  those  I  have  met  in  the  south,  the  Mo- 
hammedans of  China  are  less  bio-oted  than  those  of  other 
lands.  This  is  the  natural  result  of  their  living  in  a 
latitudinarian  country,  and  it  renders  the  prospect  of  their 
conversion  to  Christianity  more  promising  than  that  of  the 
followers  of  Islam  elsewhere. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  among  the  minor  sects  in 
China  is  that  called  the  Woo-wei-keaou.  It  is  an  offshoot 
from  Buddhism.  The  words  Woo-wei  mean  "  non-action." 
These  words  are  in  China  a  favourite  philosopliical  phrase, 
used  by  all  schools  of  a  contemplative  or  mystic  tendency. 
The  Taouists,  who  spoke  of  the  Eternal  Keason  which 
underlies  all  existences,  held  that  it  could  be  understood 
and  the  perfection  of  our  nature  reached  only  by  rest,  by 
stillness  physical  and  mental,  by  abstaining  from  external 
methods  of  improvement,  and  by  disbelief  in  their  ef&cacy. 
Tliis  they  called  Woo-wei,  "  to  do  nothing."  The  esoteric 
Buddhists  made  use  of  the  same  term.  They  said  that  the 
worship  in  temples,  the  use  of  idols  and  particular  vest- 
ments and  ceremonies,  was  useless :  real  progress  would  be 
made  much  more  effectually  by  the  abstraction  of  the  mind 
from  outw\ard  things,  and  the  turning  of  the  soul  inwards 
on  itself.  This  was  the  principle  of  Tamo  or  Bodhidharma, 
and  his  followers,  the  founder  of  the  esoteric  sects  of 
Chinese  Buddhism. 

The  sect  we  are  now  describing  was  originated  by  men 
whose  thoughts  also  led  them  in  this  direction.  They 
were  mystics  who  avoided  the  common  idolatry  of  the 
country  because  they  regarded  it  as  mischievous.  They 
say  that  the  universe  is  a  great  temple.  The  fragrance  of 
flowers  is  the  incense  of  Nature  to  Buddha.  The  sinoing 
of  birds  is  music  spontaneously  performed  to  the  honour 
of  Buddha.  The  roaring  of  the  sea  and  the  rushing  sound 
of  the  winds  is  the  voice  of  prayer  and  praise  ascending  to 
the  same  divinity.     There  is  no  need  of  an  idol.     Heaven 


OBJECTION  TO  ANIMAL  FOOD.  185 

and  earth  are  the  image  of  Buddha,  present  always  and 
everywhere.  This  description  reminds  us  of  such  passages 
in  our  poets  as — 

'"Tis  a  cathedral  boundless  as  our  wonder, 

Whose  quenchless  lamps  the  sun  and  moon  supply ; 
Its  quire  the  winds  and  waves,  its  organ  thunder, 
Its  dome  the  sky." 

This  sect  does  not  figure  in  the  national  literature.  Its 
name  is  not  mentioned  in  books ;  and  the  treatises  of  its 
founders  and  their  disciples  are  not  known  beyond  the 
boundaries  of  the  community  that  regards  them  with  reli- 
gious faith.  It  does  not  excite  the  attention  of  the  literary 
class  in  the  country,  like  the  Buddhist  and  Taouist 
religions,  or  like  Mohammedanism  and  Christianity.  Its 
professors  are  humble  in  station,  possessing  little  mental 
culture,  mild  in  manner,  and  decided  in  their  religious 
convictions. 

This  sect  has  grown  up  and  spread  itself  during  the  last 
three  centuries  in  the  eastern  provinces  of  China,  Its 
founders  were  persecuted  as  revolutionists  in  the  province 
of  Shantung,  and  some  of  them  were  crucified  by  the  local 
authorities. 

I  was  conversing  on  one  occasion  at  Shanghai  with  a 
knot  of  Chinese  on  some  of  the  doctrines  of  Christianity, 
when  a  follower  of  this  religion  interposed  a  question: — 
"Is  it  not  a  sin  to  eat  animal  food?  It  is  wrong  to  take 
life."  Instead  of  meeting  him  with  a  direct  answer,  I 
inquired  of  him  why  fowls  and  swine  were  created,  if  not 
to  serve  as  food  for  mankind.  He  did  not  assent  to  the 
doctrine  that  these  animals  were  created  to  be  eaten,  for 
his  sect  is  strictly  vegetarian;  but  the  rest  of  the  by- 
standers expressed  their  approval  of  it.  He  then  asked  if 
eating  beef  was  not  unquestionably  a  great  sin,  because 
oxen  plough  the  soil.  He  was  reminded  that  if  it  is  un- 
grateful to  use  oxen  that  plough  for  food,  there  are  very 
large  numbers  of  them  that  do  not  plough,  and  these  cannot 


1 86  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

be  shielded  from  death  on  this  ground.  Besides,  he  was 
told,  Confucius  has  oxen  offered  to  him  in  sacrifice,  and  he 
also  ate  beef;  so  that,  though  it  is  a  common  notion  in 
China  that  beef  should  not  be  used  for  food,  it  was  not 
suj)ported  by  the  example  of  the  man  whom  his  country- 
men venerate  as  the  wisest  of  their  sages.  He  was  then 
asked  if  he  worshipped  images.  "  No,"  he  said,  "  we 
adore  the  Buddha  of  empty  space."  "Why,"  we  in- 
quired, "  should  you  pay  your  homage  to  him  ?  He  is 
not  in  the  position  of  emperor  or  father  to  you.  Why 
do  you  not  worship  God,  who  is  both  your  emperor 
and  your  father?"  He  asked,  in  reply,  for  informa- 
tion as  to  how  God  should  be  adored.  He  was  told,  by 
feeling  reverence  for  Him  and  addressing  Him  in  prayer. 
He  then  remarked  that  the  sect  to  which  he  belonged  had 
two  leaders  who  were  put  to  death  by  crucifixion.  This, 
he  said,  was  a  point  of  resemblance  between  their  religion 
and  our  own.  He  was  informed  that  the  death  of  Jesus 
differed  from  that  of  others  who  had  been  crucified,  in  the 
circumstance  that  it  was  borne  voluntarily  for  the  salvation 
of  others.  It  is  the  habit  of  the  Chinese  of  all  religions  to 
seek  out  resemblances  between  their  system  and  that  of 
others,  and  when  they  have  discovered  such  resemblances, 
they  proceed  to  assert  that  the  principles  of  the  two 
systems  are  identical. 

In  the  halls  used  for  worship  by  this  sect  there  is  a 
tablet  set  up,  dedicated  to  heaven,  earth,  prince,  parent, 
and  teacher.  Small  loaves  of  bread,  or  balls  of  glutinous 
rice,  are  placed  before  this  tablet,  and  also  cups  of  tea ;  and 
the  names  Bread-religion  and  Tea-religion,  by  which  this 
sect  is  also  known,  have  thus  arisen. 

I  once  asked  a  believer  in  the  Woo-wei-keaou  how  he 
performed  his  religious  duties.  He  said  he  would  feel  no 
objection  to  show  us.  He  then  took  his  seat  on  a  stool  in 
a  cross-legged  attitude.  At  first  he  sat  tranquil,  with 
his  eyes  closed;  but  gradually  he  became  extremely 
excited,  though  without  speaking.     His  chest  heaved,  his 


VEGETARIAN  CONVERTS.  187 

breathing  became  violent,  his  eyes  shot  fire— he  seemed  to 
be  the  subject  of  demoniacal  possession.  I  stood  expect- 
ing some  oracular  utterance  from  him ;  but  after  remain- 
ino-  in  this  excited  mood  for  some  minutes,  he  suddenly 
brought  it  to  a  termination,  left  the  stool  on  which  he  had 
been  sitting,  and  resumed  conversation  as  rationally  as 
before.  The  bystanders  said  that  this  man  was  able  to 
cause  his  soul  to  go  out  of  his  body  and  return  when  he 
pleased.  This  was  their  explanation  of  the  phenomenon 
we  had  witnessed. 

The  simple  sincerity  of  the  followers  of  this  religion 
has  attracted  the  attention  of  European  missionaries.  They 
exhibit  more  depth  and  reality  in  their  convictions  than  is 
common  in  other  sects  in  China.  This,  added  to  their 
firm  protest  against  idolatry,  has  led  to  their  being  re- 
garded with  interest  by  foreigners,  and  to  some  efforts  to 
instruct  them  in  Christianity.  Among  the  Protestant 
converts  are  some  of  these  men,  but  they  have  not  all 
been  persuaded  to  give  up  their  vegetarian  habits.  They 
had  been  so  long  accustomed  to  a  vegetable  diet  that 
animal  food  was  extremely  distasteful  to  them.  They 
were  informed  that  Christianity  laid  down  no  law  as  to 
food,  and  that  they  might  continue  to  be  vegetarians,  if 
they  desired  it,  so  that  they  did  not  retain  their  old 
opinions  that  to  partake  of  other  fare  was  sinful,  and  a 
vegetable  diet  both  meritorious  and  the  only  lawful  one. 

The  books  of  this  sect  are  in  the  form  of  dialogue  or 
of  narrative.  The  principal  speakers  and  actors  are  the 
three  founders.  They  are  written  after  the  common 
Buddhist  model.  The  teacher  enters  into  discussion  with 
his  disciples,  or  w^ith  some  opponents  of  the  doctrines 
professed  by  him,  and  the  doctrines  to  be  communicated 
are  broudit  forward  in  a  conversational  form. 

The  late  origin  of  this  sect,  and  its  extensive  propaga- 
tion among  the  villages  of  Eastern  China,  shows  that  there 
are  still  some  remains  of  life  in  Buddhism.  In  the 
orthodox  Buddhism  there  is  the  appearance  of  unreality 


1 88  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

and  want  of  earnest  faith  in  the  majority  of  the  monks. 
They  adopt  the  peculiar  garb  and  discipline  of  their  sect 
merely  as  a  profession,  to  gain  a  living  by.  When  they 
enter  on  the  monkish  life,  they  of  course  abandon  their 
secular  occupations.  For  an  hour  or  two  in  the  day  they 
are  engaged  in  chanting  their  sacred  books,  and  are  idle 
for  the  rest  of  their  time,  except  when  called  to  perform 
services  for  the  dead  or  on  occasion  of  the  great  festivals. 
Such  men  contrast  unfavourably  with  believers  in  a 
religion  like  the  Woo-wei-keaou,  who  continue  their 
respective  crafts,  wear  the  common  dress  of  the  country, 
and  show  strong  faith  in  their  religious  creed. 

The  ruling  classes  in  China,  however,  refuse  to  give 
them  credit  for  religious  earnestness,  and  have  never 
ceased  to  represent  them  as  a  political  sect.  They  were 
persecuted  as  such  by  the  last  native  Chinese  dynasty, 
and  they  are  still  described  as  a  secret  political  society  in 
the  Sacred  Edict,  where  the  people  are  warned  by  the 
Emperor  against  false  and  dangerous  sects. 


(  i89) 


CHAPTER    XVI. 

THE  TAIPING   INSURRECTION. 

In  bringing  tliese  chapters  to  a  close,  some  reference  to 
the  recent  Christian  insurrection  in  China  cannot  be 
omitted.  When  that  remarkable  movement  commenced 
twenty-four  years  ago,  the  Western  world  was  astonished 
to  hear  that  Christianity  was  the  adopted  creed  of  a  power- 
ful rebel  party  that  was  waging  war  in  China  against  the 
reigning  Tartar  dynasty.  Credible  accounts  were  received, 
of  the  most  interesting  kind,  of  the  existence  of  a  body  of 
mountaineers  and  others  in  the  hilly  districts  near  Canton, 
who  met  for  prayer  to  "  the  Heavenly  Father  "  in  the  name 
of  Jesus,  read  Christian  books,  and  made  strenuous  exer- 
tions to  propagate  their  opinions.  Attacked  by  persecu- 
tion, they  met  in  lonely  places,  but  afterwards  took  up 
arms  to  defend  themselves. 

There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  the  truth  of  these  accounts. 
The  informant  from  whom  Mr.  Hamberg  derived  the 
materials  of  his  narrative,  the  best  history  published  of  the 
early  part  of  tlie  movement,  appeared  to  be  a  sincere  and 
simple-minded  Christian.  He  was  a  cousin  of  Tae-ping- 
wang,  the  rebel  leader,  and  spoke  the  same  dialect,  the 
Hakka,  used  in  parts  of  Canton  province,  and  also  in 
Kwangse.  Several  missionaries  knew  him  during  many 
months,  and  felt  convinced  that  he  was  a  speaker  of  the 
truth.  According  to  his  testimony,  there  can  be  no  reason- 
able doubt  that  this  insurrection  began  in  strong  religious 
impressions  derived  from  reading  the  Scriptures  and  tracts 
published  by  Protestant  missionaries  and  Protestant  native 
converts. 


IQO  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

In  the  mind  of  Tae-ping-wang  and  liis  first  followers,  a 
fanatic  element  very  early  united  itself  to  the  religious 
element.  This  led  them  into  excesses  from  which  they 
would  probably  have  been  preserved  if  missionaries  had 
had  access  to  them.  They  felt  the  power  of  Christian 
truth.  They  were  impressed  deeply  by  the  doctrine  of  the 
atonement,  the  divine  mission  of  Christ,  the  sin  of  idolatry, 
&c.  But  they  were  without  guidance  in  comprehending 
the  use  of  the  Old  Testament  in  Christian  times.  They 
wanted  sober  and  enlightened  explanations,  such  as  would 
have  prevented  their  deducing  from  the  books  of  Moses 
that  sacrifices  are  to  be  offered  to  the  Trinity,  that  a  war- 
spirit  is  needed  to  put  down  idolatry,  and  is  a  proper  ac- 
companiment of  Christianity,  and  that  the  polygamy  of 
patriarchal  times  is  a  model  for  imitation  now. 

The  good  that  would  have  resulted  from  sincere  faith — 
such  it  must  have  been — in  our  Bible  and  the  religion  it 
teaches,  was  very  much  counteracted  and  overborne  by  the 
unhappy  intrusion  of  that  enthusiasm  which  led  Tae-ping- 
wang  not  only  to  draw  these  conclusions  from  the  Old 
Testament,  but  to  believe  himself  inspired.  This  led  him 
to  regard  himself  as  the  divinely-appointed  Emperor  of 
China,  and  changed  into  a  fierce  warrior  one  who  would 
otherwise  have  been  a  zealous  preacher  of  Christianity. 
There  was  no  hope  after  he  took  this  step  that  he  would 
submit  to  have  his  opinions  criticised  and  corrected,  even 
if  Christian  missionaries  could  have  obtained  the  oj^por- 
tunity  of  conversing  with  him.  He  was  at  the  head  of  an 
army  that  reverenced  him  as  honoured  with  revelations 
from  God,  and  as  specially  commissioned  to  occupy  the 
throne  of  a  new  dynasty  in  China.  He  would  not  now 
become  the  humble  disciple  of  foreigners.  He,  and  such  of 
his  followers  as  were  animated  by  the  same  fanaticism  as 
himself,  would  rather  have  died  than  give  up  the  objec- 
tionable articles  of  their  creed.  The  same  fanatic  energy 
that  gave  them  their  first  successes  and  nerved  them  to 
accomplish    their    triumphant   march   to   Nanking,   kept 


TAE-PING-WANG.  191 

them  faithful  to  their  adopted  religious  belief  to  the 
last. 

Although  many  critics  of  Chinese  matters  have  preferred 
to  call  these  men  blasphemers  and  impostors,  their  prefer- 
ence has  come  from  a  view  of  the  subject  much  more 
difficult  to  support  than  that  here  given.  That  Tae-ping- 
wang  should  have  put  forward  pretensions  to  be  the 
brother  of  Jesus  Christ  is  much  to  be  deplored.  It  was 
caused  by  fanaticism  and  want  of  proper  instruction.  It 
should  be  considered  that  he  was  just  emerging  from 
heathenism,  and  it  could  not  fail  to  be  difficult  for  him  to 
transfer  himself  completely  into  the  Christian  sphere  of 
thought.  Whether  he  may  fairly  incur  the  charge  of  wilful 
blasphemy  on  his  assuming  such  titles  as  those  which  are 
found  in  the  rebel  proclamations,  is  not  easy  to  say.  How 
was  it  with  Mahomet  in  his  claim  to  a  divine  mission  ? 

To  read  the  books  written  by  him  is  to  become  con- 
vinced that  he  was  sincere,  so  far  as  he  knew  it,  in  the 
acceptance  of  Christianity.  In  the  work  called  the  "  Three 
Character  Classic,"  he  describes  the  creation  of  the  world 
by  God,  and  sketches  the  history  of  the  Israelites.  He 
then  proceeds  to  relate  the  mission  of  Jesus,  the  Son  of 
God,  into  the  world.  His  death  on  the  cross  for  the  salva- 
tion of  mankind.  His  resurrection  and  ascension,  with  His 
parting  injunction  to  the  twelve  Apostles  to  propagate 
His  doctrine  and  the  book  containing  it  through  the  whole 
world.  He  further  states,  that  in  the  earliest  ages  the 
worship  of  God  was  practised  by  the  Chinese  as  in  foreign 
countries,  and  condemns  the  emperors  who  had  helped  to 
introduce  the  Taouist  and  Buddhist  superstitions  among 
the  people  whom  they  governed.  It  was  Tsin-slie-hwang 
who,  a  little  more  than  two  centuries  before  Christ,  was 
ensnared  by  the  belief  that  then  began  to  prevail  in  the 
existence  of  genii  and  of  a  method  by  which  immortality 
for  the  body  may  be  attained.  He  was  imitated  by  Han- 
woo-te.  Ming-te,  their  successor  on  the  throne  of  China, 
was  as  assiduous  in  the  encouragement  of  the  Buddhist 


192  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

religion  as  they  had  been  in  promoting  the  Taouist.  He 
reserves  his  severest  censure  for  Hwei-te,  of  a  much  later 
period,  the  eleventh  century  of  our  era.  This  monarch 
had  given  the  ancient  Chinese  name  Shang-te  to  a  Taouist 
divinity  Yuh-hwang.  "  Now,"  he  says,  "  Shang-te,  God,  is 
the  Great  Father  of  the  whole  world.  His  name  is  most 
honourable,  and  it  has  been  in  use  a  long  series  of  years. 
Who  is  Hwei-te  that  he  should  dare  to  change  it  ? "  He 
then  adds  that  a  deserved  retribution  overtook  liim  for  the 
part  he  took  in  spreading  the  practice  of  idolatry.  It  was 
on  this  account  that  he  was  captured  by  the  Tartars,  his 
foes,  and,  with  his  son,  died  in  imprisonment. 

Although  the  book  does  not  close  without  those  fana- 
tical pretensions  that  show  themselves  in  so  many  places 
in  the  writings  of  this  man,  there  is  enough  to  make  plain 
that  he  understood  something  of  the  Christian  doctrine  of 
God,  and  of  the  salvation  of  mankind  through  the  death 
of  Christ,  as  also  that  he  had  become  sensible  of  the  mis- 
chief flowing  from  the  introduction  of  idolatrous  rehgion 
into  China. 

In  judging  of  the  sincerity  of  these  insurgents,  who 
baptized  one  another  in  the  name  of  the  Trinity,  and 
called  themselves  Christians,  it  ought  to  be  remembered 
that  the  greater  part  of  their  adherents  did  not  belong  to 
the  original  nucleus  of  earnest,  religious,  or  fanatical  men 
through  whose  enthusiastic  courage  Tae-ping-wang  won  so 
many  battles  and  took  so  many  cities.  Multitudes  after- 
wards joined  them  of  a  far  inferior  mould  of  character, 
some  impressed  by  force,  others  invited  by  hopes  of 
plunder.  The  Christianity  of  such  men  was  non-existent, 
and  they  were  not  fair  examples  of  those  who  began  the 
movement,  nor  were  they  such  good  soldiers.  Many  of 
the  first  adherents  of  this  party  had  died.  Those  whose 
hair  had  not  been  shaven  for  seven  years,  who  were  the 
private  friends  of  the  cliief  at  the  beginning,  who  joined 
him  in  religious  meetings  and  marched  with  him  to  the 
field,  before  he  shut  himself  up  in  seclusion  within  the 


THE  TAIPING  INSURGENTS.  193 

walls  of  his  palace,  and  knew  liini  intimately,  had  mostly 
disappeared.  The  character  of  the  rebel  army  became  on 
this  account  necessarily  much  less  religious  than  it  was, 
although  they  still  maintained  imperfectly  the  forms  of 
Christian  worship  and  the  observance  of  a  Sabbath. 

The  Christian  insurgents  in  China  never  had  the  confi- 
dence of  any  part  of  the  nation.  Their  religious  character 
was  one  reason  of  the  unpopularity  of  their  cause.  If  they 
had  been  crafty  impostors,  they  would  have  chosen  some 
other  watchword  than  that  of  Christianity.  Instead  of 
fighting  in  the  name  of  Shang-te  (God)  and  of  Yay-soo 
(Jesus),  they  would  have  waged  war  in  the  name  of  their 
ancestors,  or  they  would  have  inscribed  on  their  banners 
the  titles  of  some  of  the  national  gods.  But  they  chose 
for  their  religion  one  that  must  of  necessity  be  extremely 
distasteful  to  most  of  their  countrymen.  Nothing  could 
be  further  removed  from  the  sympathies  of  the  influential 
part  of  native  society  than  a  course  like  this.  Their  books 
were  constantly  spoken  of  as  yaou  shoo,  "  goblin  books ; " 
and  they  themselves  were,  as  might  be  expected,  never 
honoured  with  any  more  respectful  appellations  than 
thieves  and  robbers.  Their  profession  of  Christianity  did 
not  obtain  for  them  any  better  reputation  among  those 
who  give  the  tone  to  society,  and  have  influence  and  pro- 
perty. With  the  adoption  of  a  religious  creed  coming 
from  a  foreign  source,  and  introduced  by  the  barbarians 
themselves  at  Canton  within  a  few  years  back,  they  resigned 
in  the  estimation  of  their  countrymen  all  title  to  be  con- 
sidered patriots.  This  party  had  by  the  Chinese  never 
been  regarded  as  patriotic,  and  nowhere  was  there  ex- 
hibited the  intention  or  desire  to  co-operate  with  them  in 
effecting  a  revolution,  except  on  the  part  of  those  who 
had  nothing  in  character  or  property  to  lose  by  it. 

The  power  of  this  party,  then,  did  not  consist  in  any 
sympathy  felt  with  them,  beyond  the  actual  limits  of  the 
districts  that  they  occupied.     Their  courage  was  admitted 

to  be  superior  to  that  of  the  imperialist  soldiers.     Their 

10  N 


194  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

discipline  is  favourably  spoken  of  by  some  of  those  natives 
who  witnessed  it  for  its  rigour  and  for  its  moral  tone. 
The  fact  that  they  had  a  sort  of  Christian  worship  did  not 
win  them  favour  with  the  general  population. 

Now  that  this  insurrection  has  disappeared  by  the  de- 
struction of  the  actors  in  it,  it  may  be  asked  what  have 
been  its  results  ?  It  shows  that  there  is  a  susceptibility  in 
the  Chinese  mind  to  receive  Christian  doctrine  for  which 
we  were  before  far  from  giving  them  credit. 

They  are,  as  a  nation,  usually  represented  as  having 
only  sordid  aims  in  life,  and  as  almost  incapable  of  feeling 
reverence  for  God  or  curiosity  respecting  the  future  state. 
We  see,  by  the  history  of  this  insurrection,  that  there  are 
many  among  the  Chinese  who  are  prepared  to  receive 
these  and  other  religious  tenets  in  the  spirit  of  an  earnest 
and  practical  faith.  They  have  shown  themselves  capable, 
to  a  degTce  unexpected  by  the  rest  of  mankind,  of  a  re- 
ligious enthusiasm  ardent  enough  to  increase  their 
bravery  as  fighting  men,  and  make  them  capable  of  sub- 
mitting to  a  seK-denying  discipline,  such  as  cannot  be  very 
agreeable  to  a  people  trained  in  national  habits  like  those 
of  the  ordinary  Chinese.  They  are  too  slothful  and  sensual 
to  consent  to  such  a  discipline  with  much  satisfaction, 
were  they  not  affected  by  an  enthusiasm  to  which  they 
have  not  been  accustomed.  There  is  hope,  then,  that  the 
Chinese  as  a  nation  may  take  up  the  religion  of  the  Bible 
with  strong  faith,  and  propagate  it  by  their  own  exertions. 

We  also  see  in  this  movement  the  effect  of  tlie  distri- 
bution in  that  country  of  Bibles  and  Christian  tracts.  A 
reading  population,  such  as  there  exists,  can  receive  the 
knowledge  of  Christianity  in  this  way  without  the  pre- 
sence of  the  living  teacher.  They  have  reprinted  some 
Christian  treatises  with  slight  alterations,  and  composed 
others  modelled  on  those  prepared  by  foreigners.  One  of 
the  most  important  of  their  publications  is  an  elaborate 
treatise  by  the  late  Dr.  Medhurst,  on  the  Attributes  of 
Grod,  composed  at  Batavia  more  than  twenty  years  ago. 


JVA  NG-FUNG-  TSJNG.  1 9  5 

The  fact  that  they  published  many  parts  of  the  Scriptures 
is  a  striking  one,  and  is  strange  to  account  for  on  any 
hypotliesis  but  that  those  who  did  so  were  sincere  believers 
in  the  book.    No  political  prophet  could  have  foretold  that 
a  body  of  revolutionists  in  China  would  have  spread  their 
opinions  by  the  printing  and  circulation  of  Christian  books. 
We  never  expect  to  hear  of  Hindoos  or  Malays,  when 
commencing  a  warlike  movement,  adopting  Christianity 
and  resolving  to  propagate  it.     To  show  that  the  effect  of 
these  books,  and  of  the  religion  they  teach,  has  been  some- 
thing more  than  ordinary  on  the  moral  condition  of  these 
people,  I  shall  detail  an  interview  with  a  former  follower 
of  Tae-ping-wang,  who  was  met  l^y  myself  and  others  at 
Shanghai.    His  name  was  Wang-fung-tsing.    He  had  come 
into  the  city  to  join  the  rebel  force  that  then  held  it ;  but 
he  soon  left  them,  dissatisfied  with  the  state  of  affairs  pre- 
vailing among  his  new  friends.     He  conversed  with  me  in 
one  of  the  Protestant  chapels,  and  told  us  that  he  had  been 
baptized  by  Dr.  Gutzlaff,  seven  years  before.     A  convert 
at  Hongkong  had  taken  him  in  hand  to  instruct  him  in 
Christianity,  had  supplied  him  with  a  little  money,  and 
recommended  him  to  unite  himself  to  Dr.  Gutzlaff's  Chris- 
tian Union.     He  became  a  member  of  that  body  till  the 
death  of  its  founder.     He  then  proceeded,  by  the  advice  of 
his  old  friend,  the  convert,  in  search  of  other  members  of 
the  Christian  Union,  who  had  then  joined  Tae-ping-wang, 
and   were   engaged    in    organising   an   armed   opposition 
against  the  Government.     He  joined  them  in  time  to  be 
with  the  Taiping  army  on  its  march  through  the  interior 
provinces  to  the  important  city  of  Woochang-foo.  Favoured 
by  a  shower  of  snow,  they  took  possession  of  that  city,  with 
the  two  adjoining  ones,  Hanyang  and  Hankow,  and  then 
descended  the  Yang-tsze-keang  to  Nanking.      From  this 
point  he  returned  to  Hongkong,  and  afterwards  found  his 
way  to  Shanghai.     He  told  us,  in  answer  to  inquiries,  that 
there  is   the   administration  of  baptism   in   the  Taiping 
army  to  men  and  women,  old  and  young,  by  sprinkling. 


196  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

They  have  the  Lord's  Supper  every  month,  and  not  upon 
the  Sabbath-day.  At  this  ceremony  they  use  wine  made 
from  grapes — a  curious  circumstance,  grape  wine  scarcely 
ever  being  seen  in  Cliina  ^ — showing  the  anxiety  of  these 
Christians  to  maintain  as  exactly  as  they  know  how  the 
creed  and  j)ractice  of  Christianity.  They  admit  new  appli- 
cants to  baptism  after  not  more  than  a  day's  instruction. 
Twenty-four  elders,  or  chang-laou,  have  assigned  to  them 
the  office  of  preaching.  There  are  also  priests  who  super- 
intend the  sacrifices.  Tlie  practice  of  offering  sacrifices 
they  have  unquestionably  adopted  from  reading  the  Old 
Testament  without  guidance  as  to  what  parts  of  it  are 
and  what  are  not  intended  for  imitation  by  Christians. 
He  told  us  that  he  met  several  men  who  had  been 
baptized  by  Dr.  Gutzlaff,  holding  posts  of  influence  in 
the  Taiping  official  staff.  He  denied,  when  asked,  that 
he  smoked  opium,  saying  that  it  was  forbidden  strictly  in 
the  regulations  of  Tae-ping-wang.  When  the  question 
was  repeated,  he  replied,  "  How  could  I  tell  a  lie,  who  am 
a  disciple  of  Jesus  ?" 

The  effect  of  this  interview  was  to  strengthen  our  im- 
pressions of  the  extent  to  which  the  imitation  of  Christian 
practices  was  carried  by  these  people,  and  also  of  the 
height  of  the  moral  standard  that  they  set  for  themselves. 
The  ordinary  Chinese  do  not  assume  this  liigh  tone  in 
vindication  of  their  veracity. 

But  a  prolonged  state  of  war  is  most  prejudicial  to  moral- 
ity, and  the  greater  part  of  the  Tae-ping-wang  forces,  re- 
cruited as  they  are  indiscriminately  from  the  population  of 
the  regions  through  which  they  pass,  of  course  do  not  share 
any  earnest  faith  in  religious  doctrines  to  which  they  are 
obliged  to  conform,  but  which  they  do  not  really  under- 
stand or  believe. 

This  movement  in  favour  of  Christianity,  originated  and 

1  We  learn  from  Mr.  Lockhart,  who  in  some  of  the  interior  provinces,  hut 
took  part  in  the  interview  here  de-  not  near  Canton,  from  whicli  part  the 
scribed,  that  wine  is  made  from  grapes    rebels  came. 


ERRORS  OF  THE  TAIPING  MOVEMENT.         197 

carried  on  by  the  Chinese  themselves,  was  injured  by  the 
political  aims  which  were  combined  with  it.  It  was  the 
error  of  half-enliohtened  minds  to  believe  themselves  called 
to  overthrow,  by  force  of  arms,  the  Government  that  perse- 
cuted them  and  the  idolatry  which  Christianity  had  taught 
them  was  a  sin  against  God.  Many  of  their  countrymen 
have  wondered  at  their  crusade  against  images.  When 
describing  the  mode  of  operation  pursued  by  the  adherents 
of  Tae-ping-wang,  they  praised  them  for  their  discipline, 
and  their  avoidance  of  petty  thefts  and  other  excesses 
commonly  practised  by  the  soldiers  in  the  pay  of  the 
Government;  "but,"  they  added,  "they  show  an  extra- 
ordinary hostility  to  the  idols.  They  kill  pooso."  They 
showed  no  mercy  to  the  images  of  the  gods.  We  could 
have  excused  their  iconoclastic  tendencies  if  they  had  not 
also  undertaken  to  accomplish  a  political  revolution.  By 
this  course  they  have  done  harm  to  the  cause  of  Christianity 
in  China,  and  have  given  its  enemies  an  opportunity  to 
misrepresent  it.  We  will  hope  that  when  the  Chinese 
shall  again  take  up  our  religion  in  an  earnest  manner,  they 
will  eschew  other  aims,  and  receive  it  as  a  spiritual  king- 
dom, and  not  in  the  spirit  of  Fifth  Monarchy  Men.  In 
this  case  the  enthusiasm  they  have  shown  will  be  again 
exhibited,  and  will  produce  the  happiest  results.  China 
is  not  so  incapable  of  change  as  is  thought  by  most  persons. 
Her  population  is  not  so  exclusively  devoted  to  a  gross 
and  sensual  life  as  to  be  proof  against  impressions  of  a 
religious  nature.  That  tlie  Chinese  are  capable  of  warmer 
religious  feelings  than  was  thought  possible  has  been 
proved.  There  is,  then,  encouragement  to  be  derived  from 
the  story  of  the  Christian  insurrection  by  those  who  are 
interested  in  missionary  labours  in  China. 

There  need  be  no  fear  for  the  ultimate  success  of  Pro- 
testant missions  there,  when  we  have  had  so  recent  an 
example  of  the  effect  of  the  distribution  of  books.  The  first 
agents  of  Protestant  societies  who  went  to  China  to  teach 
Christianity  met  Avith  very  little  apparent  fruit  of  their 


198  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

labours.  Few  converts  joined  them.  Much  opposition 
was  excited  against  them.  They  sowed  the  seed  of  truth 
in  a  hard  soil,  in  the  time  of  wintry  winds  and  unkindly 
influences.  Now,  however,  it  has  been  shown  that  effects 
have  followed  whicli  they  had  not  anticipated.  Not  only 
have  their  books  been  widely  circulated  by  the  machinery 
they  themselves  organised,  but  for  several  years  past  a 
native  Chinese  party,  in  the  midst  of  anarchy  and  inter- 
necine war,  have  been  diffusing  Christian  truths  in  an 
extensive  series  of  publications  which  they  have  widely 
scattered  through  the  country.  The  Christian  atonement 
has  been  in  this  way  made  known  over  regions  much 
broader  in  extent  tlian  could  be  reached  by  the  agencies 
set  on  foot  by  European  missionaries.  After  making  all 
the  necessary  deductions  for  imperfect  instruction,  the 
mingling  of  Christianity  with  political  designs,  &c.,  there 
still  remains  good  reason  to  hope  that  not  a  few  of  the 
Kwangse  insurgents  may  deservedly  be  called  Christians. 
At  any  rate,  when  they  die  by  the  sword,  if  such  is  to  be 
their  fate,  there  will  be  many  sincere,  brave,  and  stalwart 
upholders  of  what  they  believe  to  be  Christianity,  who  will 
meet  death  with  an  unflinching  courage  worthy  of  the  name, 
and  by  the  hands  of  far  worse  men  than  themselves. 

The  converts  under  the  immediate  care  of  the  Protestant 
missionaries  differ  widely  in  character  from  the  men  we 
have  been  considering.  Eemaining  where  they  received 
instruction,  and  where  they  became  professed  Christians, 
they  are  under  no  temptation  to  adopt  revolutionary  views 
or  to  imbibe  the  terrible  war-spirit  to  which  fanaticism  has 
so  often  given  birth.  They  are  learning  that  calm,  en- 
lightened, and  domestic  Christianity  which  spreads  its 
silent  influence  in  private  life,  converting  first  individuals, 
then  families,  then  whole  villages  and  larger  communities. 
Christianity  must  in  China  be  national  to  be  powerful.  It 
must  take  hold  on  the  hearts  of  the  people,  and  they  must 
teach  it  every  man  to  his  brother,  before  our  Protestant 
missions  there  can  be  said  to  have  gained  their  object. 


THE  PROTESTANT  CONVERTS.  199 

But  while  these  evangelistic  operations  are  so  recent,  it  is 
far  better  that  the  native  congregations  of  Christians  should 
remain  under  the  supervision  of  the  foreign  missionaries 
than  that  the  converts  should  be  left  entirely  to  them- 
selves. That  they  have  among  them  the  elements  of  self- 
support,  and  possess  a  vitality  that  must  ensure  progress, 
is  shown  by  the  considerable  number  of  catechists  and 
preachers  that  have,  in  consequence  of  a  few  years'  training 
on  the  part  of  the  missionaries,  become  their  helpers  in 
teaching  the  doctrine  of  salvation.  The  Protestant  converts 
were  in  1859  still  not  many  more  than  1000.^  These 
were  the  remaining  fruits  of  sixteen  years'  labour  by  about 
a  hundred  missionaries  at  the  five  treaty  ports.  While 
few  in  numbers,  it  is  better  for  them  not  to  be  thrown 
entirely  on  their  own  resources.  They  might  fall  into 
error,  as  did  the  Kwangse  Christians,  who  began  so  well 
and  so  zealously  with  reading  the  Scriptures  and  prayer- 
meetings.  It  was  in  an  evil  hour  that  they  decided  to 
take  up  arms.  There  was  no  one  to  tell  them  that  our 
religion  is  peaceful,  and  that  the  weapons  of  our  warfare 
are  not  carnal.  The  zeal  of  these  men,  which,  untempered 
by  an  enlightened  prudence,  led  them  to  the  brink  of 
destruction,  would  have  wrought  wonders  for  the  spread 
of  Christianity  if  rightly  directed.  Among  the  lessons  we 
may  learn  by  their  history  is  this,  that  in  prosecuting  the 
task  of  evangelising  China,  there  needs  to  be  careful 
instruction  added  to  the  possession  of  the  Word  of  God. 
The  Bible  needs  an  expositor,  and  zeal  needs  a  wise  regu- 
lating prudence.  We  may  still  hope  for  those  Chinese 
who  shall  incline  to  receive  the  Gospel,  that  the  intelli- 
gence of  the  national  mind  will  in  due  time  give  them 
knowledge,  and  that  the  enthusiasm  exhibited  in  their 
religious  history  will  give  them  zeal.  When  these  qualities 
are  combined  they  will  produce  a  development  of  Chinese 
Christianity  such  as  will  Ijear  a  proportion  to  the  very  pro- 

1  At  the  present  time  (1877)  the  con-     as  when  the  first  edition  of  this  book 
verts  are  about  ten  times  as  numerous    was  published. 


200  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

minent  position  that  China  holds  among  the  nations  of  the 
East.  As  great  as  they  have  been  in  the  arts  and  in  litera- 
ture, in  education  and  in  politics,  so  great  may  we  expect 
them  to  become  in  the  exhibition  of  an  intelligent  practical 
Christianity,  when,  in  God's  providence,  and  by  His  gracious 
influence  upon  their  hearts,  they  come  to  accept  it. 

The  preceding  examination  of  the  religious  state  of  the 
Chinese  has  shown  that  that  in  which  they  are  deficient  is 
not  so  much  a  system  of  morality  as  in  clear  and  correct 
notions  on  God,  redemption,  and  immortality.  Only  Divine 
revelation  can  meet  this  want,  and  Christianity,  the  religion 
of  the  Bible,  must  therefore  eventually  become  the  religion 
of  China.  In  this  instance  the  light  of  Scripture  prophecy 
blends  with  the  pre-intimations  afforded  by  reason.  They 
alike  forbid  us  to  doubt  that  Christian  missions  in  that 
country  can  fail  to  be  ultimately  successful.  But  what  is 
the  probability  that  large  masses  of  the  population  will 
soon  become  Christian  ?  Is  any  lengthened  period  likely 
to  intervene  before  our  religion  shall  come  to  be  in  any 
sense  national  ?  The  difficulty  of  answering  these  ques- 
tions suggests  the  words  of  the  world's  Redeemer,  "  It  is 
not  for  you  to  know  the  times  and  the  seasons,  which  the 
Father  hath  put  in  His  own  power." 

Yet,  certainly,  the  great  political  and  social  changes 
recently  begun  are  in  favour  of  Christianity.  It  is  now  a 
tolerated  religion.  Foreigners  may  teach  it,  while  natives 
may  profess  it.  The  two  idolatrous  religions  prevalent  in 
the  country  are  sufficiently  worn  out  and  weak  to  render 
the  victory  of  Christianity  not  very  difficult.  If  the  fol- 
lowers of  Confucius  are  self-sufficient  and  proud,  their 
want  of  faith  in  Buddhism,  and  the  circumstance  that  their 
own  religion  fails  to  satisfy  the  spiritual  wants  of  man, 
favour  the  hope  that  they  will  accept  Christianity.  The 
universal  use  of  one  written  language  and  of  the  art  of 
printing  are  an  immeasurable  advantage  to  missionary 
operations,  which  ought  not  to  be  omitted  in  enumerating 
the  circumstances  favourable  to  the  spread  of  Christianity. 


20I    ) 


CHAPTER   XVII. 

JOURNEY   TO   WOO-TAI-SHAN   IN    18/2   COMMENCED— 
PEKING   TO   LUNG-TSIUEN-KWAN. 

The  excitement  connected  with  the  Emperor's  marriage 
had  been  intense,  and  had  arrived  at  a  climax  the  night 
before  our  departure  for  Woo-tai-shan,  when  the  bridal 
procession  took  place.  The  Chinese  Government  expects 
on  such  an  occasion  from  the  metropolitan  population  not 
joy  but  reverence.  The  Emperor  and  Empress  are  to  be 
regarded  as  a  sort  of  divinities,  and  as  the  most  distant 
approach  to  familiarity  is  to  be  avoided,  no  one  is  allowed 
to  be  in  the  streets,  perfect  silence  is  maintained,  and 
orders  are  even  issued  that  none  must  look  from  the 
houses  lining  the  route  while  the  procession  is  passing. 
If  a  light  were  to  be  seen  in  any  house  it  would  call  down 
instant  punishment  on  the  householder.  Yet  multitudes 
were  looking  out  from  the  darkness  of  their  dwellings  on 
the  street  everywhere  illuminated  by  red  paper  lanterns. 
For  Peking  society  was  agitated  to  the  centre.  Who 
would  like  to  miss  seeing  this  the  most  striking  of  all 
processions  ? 

Singularly  the  new  Empress's  grandfather,  Sai-shanga, 
has  reappeared  on  this  occasion  as  if  from  the  grave. 
Many  years  ago  he  had  been  appointed  generalissimo  to 
conquer  the  Taiping  rebels.  Having  failed,  he  was  pro- 
scribed and  deprived  of  all  his  influence  and  official  duties. 
He  was  long  supposed  to  be  dead.  Now  unexpectedly  he 
has  returned  to  notice  in  connection  with  his  grand- 
dauo-hter's  elevation. 

Since  then  the  imperial   husband    and   wife  are  both 


202  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

dead,  and  China  has  entered  on  a  new  period  of  infant 
sovereignty. 

We  left  Peking  October  i6,  1872,  at  half-past  ten  a.m., 
having  been  delayed  by  the  shoeing  of  the  mules.  Only 
their  front  feet  are  shod.  Five  packed  mules  constituted 
our  cavalcade  with  a  pony.  We  were  three  in  number, 
one  American  and  two  English  missionaries,  with  a  native 
catechist  and  a  servant.  Two  muleteers,  speaking  the 
Siuen-hwa  dialect,  which  is  much  the  same  as  that  of 
Shanse,  completed  our  number. 

At  this  time  we  may  expect  in  North  China  uninter- 
ruptedly fine  weather.  We  can  be  more  sure  of  the 
absence  of  rain  than  in  an  English  October.  What  seem 
to  be  rain  clouds  pass  away,  and  week  after  week  goes  by 
with  unchanging  sunshine.  October  is  eminently  a  month 
for  tourists  in  this  part  of  the  world. 

Our  train  passed  along  the  120  feet  wide  streets  of 
Peking  to  avoid  jostling  the  crowds  which  throng  some  of 
the  narrower  thoroughfares.  Going  by  the  gate  called 
Hata-men  we  took  an  inclined  road  to  Choo-she-kow,  in 
the  centre  of  the  Chinese  city,  and  from  that  point  pro- 
ceeded westward  to  the  execution  ground  and  the  gate 
known  as  Chang-ye-men.  These  five  miles  of  continuous 
traffic  before  leaving  the  city  give  a  considerable  im- 
pression of  the  activity  of  life  and  trade  in  tliis  metro- 
polis. 

We  were  pleased  to  notice  proof  of  a  good  cotton 
harvest  in  several  long  trains  of  camels,  bearing  two- 
hundredweight  bags  of  cotton  from  Pau-ting-foo,  which 
met  us  on  the  way.  Four  days  distant  from  Peking,  this 
laro-e  cotton  reoion  forms  a  most  valuable  element  in  the 
wealth  of  the  province,  and  supplies  the  population  of 
North  Chihle  and  Shanse  with  blue  cotton  gowns  in  sum- 
mer and  wadded  clothing  in  winter.  What  an  advantage 
to  grow  cotton  at  home,  the  inhabitants  having  so  much 
need  of  it  in  the  cold  winters,  when  they  need  not  only 
their  long  gowns  and  jackets,  but  tlieir  stockings,  trousers, 


PA  FED  ROADS.  203 

shoes,  teapot   covers,   door   curtains,   coverlids,   cushions, 
mattresses,  and  chair  and  cart  covers! 

We  wonder  what  they  did  formerly  without  cotton,  for 
they  have  only  had  it  a  few  centuries.  When  we  remem- 
ber the  skins  of  innumerable  flocks  of  sheep  and  goats 
scattered  over  the  plains  of  Mongolia  and  the  mountains 
of  each  of  the  northern  provinces  of  China,  we  see  how  it 
was.  But  they  have  more  comfortable  clothing  now,  and 
a  much  larger  population  to  clothe,  than  in  those  old 
times. 

Leaving  the  Chang-ye-men,  we  found  ourselves  upon  the 
busy  stone  street  which  for  twenty  le,  or  seven  miles,  con- 
ducts the  traveller  towards  the  bridge  Loo-kow-chiau.  It 
is  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year  the  scene  of  immense 
trafiic.  The  coal  supplied  to  Peking  from  Fang-shan  and 
Ta-an-shan  come  this  way,  as  also  lime  from  Hwei-chang, 
and  all  the  traffic  of  the  west  and  south-west.  Sometimes 
it  presents  to  the  eye  an  almost  continuous  stream  of 
camels,  mules,  and  donkeys.  Many  a  slip  do  they  make 
on  the  worn  stones  of  this  causeway.  When  a  stone  sinks 
below  its  neighbours,  nothing  is  done  to  replace  it  or  to 
fill  the  vacancy.  To  repair  an  imperial  road  or  ruin  witli- 
out  an  imperial  order  would  be  regarded  as  presumption 
and  as  a  punishable  offence.  So  the  holes  in  the  road  are 
stumbled  over  in  all  weathers  by  each  new  train  of  loaded 
annuals,  as  they  have  been  for  very  many  summers  and 
winters,  and  no  one  ventures  to  murmur.  Year  after  year, 
while  new  generations  slowly  succeed  the  old,  the  mischief 
goes  on  increasing.  Good  vegetable  gardens  flank  the 
causeway. 

A  handsome  pai-loio,  or  public  archway,  forms  a  terminus 
to  this  stone  road.  Three  miles  more  of  travelling  over  a 
waste  tract,  which  was  at  some  distant  time  perhaps 
desolated  and  changed  to  a  wilderness  by  a  flood  of  the 
rivers  now  at  hand,  bring  the  traveller  to  the  bridge.  We 
noticed  that  there  are  280  stone  lions  on  the  parapets 
of  the  bridge,  and  that  there  were  elephants  pushing  with 


204  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

their  trunks  and  tusks  at  the  ends  of  the  parapets  to  keep 
the  fabric  firm,  Chinese  symbolism  loves  to  make  the 
stronger  animals  subservient  to  man,  and  to  represent 
them  as  laying  aside  entirely  their  natural  fierceness 
under  his  renovating  influence.  The  bridge  crosses  what 
is  now  a  broad  and  rapid  stream.  The  water  coming  from 
the  hills  is  abundant  and  very  muddy.  The  swelling  tide 
rushing  down  the  river  channel  looks  as  if  it  could  do 
mischief.  It  might,  if  larger,  break  its  banks.  We  were 
soon  to  see  with  our  own  eyes  what  it  can  do. 

It  was  late,  and  we  stopped  for  the  night  at  the  busy 
town,  Chang-sin-tien.  Taking  our  lodging  in  an  inn,  a 
stroll  from  the  night's  quarters  brought  us  to  the  locality 
injured  by  last  year's  inundation  on  the  east  of  the  town, 
which  lies  north  and  south.  There  was  here  a  good  strip 
of  land,  consisting,  till  the  summer  of  1 871,  of  rice  fields. 
The  river,  a  mile  to  the  north,  supplied  wmter  for  the 
cultivation.  The  outbreak  of  the  river  occurred  just  at 
this  point,  and  the  rice  lying  low,  the  whole  of  it  was 
covered  by  a  broad  swollen  stream  which  rushed  on  to 
the  south-west.  It  laid  a  deposit  of  stones  and  sand  over 
the  rice  fields  to  the  depth  of  three  and  four  feet.  This 
deposit  is  a  mile  wide  at  the  point  we  visited,  and  pro- 
ceeds for  eight  miles  farther,  having  completely  destroyed 
farming  operations  all  the  way  till  it  reaches  another  river. 
In  the  summer  of  the  previous  year  I  saw  the  river  soon 
after  it  broke  through,  a  mile  and  a  quarter  below  the 
bridge.  We  walked  along  the  sands  to  the  spot.  The 
land  we  then  saw  under  the  rushing  current,  strewn  with 
the  remains  of  trees  and  cottages,  was  the  same  which  we 
were  now  examining.  The  villagers  who  conversed  with 
us  looked  unhappy.  One  had  lost  a  hundred  mow,  or 
seventeen  acres,  of  good  land,  and  had  thirty  mow  remain- 
ins.  Another  who  lives  a  few  miles  to  the  south  told  me 
the  next  day  that  he  had  lost  fifty  mow,  worth  to  him  as 
many  taels  of  silver  per  annum.  Of  course  he  looked  the 
picture  of  sorrow.      This  frightful  devastation  leads  the 


A  CHINESE  INN.  205 

Cliiuese,  who  are  witnesses  and  victims  of  it,  to  pray  to 
Heaven  and  the  gods  for  their  protection. 

At  the  gate  of  Chang-sin-tien  was  posted  a  proclamation 
from  the  military  authorities,  warning  the  people  that  at 
the  review  of  artillery  near  the  bridge  conducted  by  great 
officers  sent  from  Peking  each  year,  they  are  not  to  raise 
the  prices  of  vegetables  on  account  of  the  arrival  of  the 
soldiers,  nor  are  they  to  pick  up  cannon-balls  or  make 
disturbances. 

Our  inn  was  very  full  of  mule  sedans  and  baggage 
animals.  Fresh  from  Peking,  and  not  having  taken  a 
journey  for  a  long  interval,  everything  diverted  us.  The 
inscriptions  on  our  sleeping-room  walls,  written  by  pass- 
ing travellers,  were  of  the  usual  style.  They  were  such  as 
Ki  sheng  mau  tien  yue,  jen  tsi  pan  chiau  sliwang  ("  Cock- 
crow is  heard  in  the  straw-thatched  inn  in  the  moonlight ; 
footsteps  are  seen  on  the  wooden  bridge  in  the  frost"). 
These  two  lines  are  very  popular,  and  deserve  to  be  so. 
They  are  evidently  by  some  true  poet.  The  words  are 
few  and  excellently  chosen.  They  make  up  a  pair  of 
pictures,  one  of  the  interior,  the  other  of  the  exterior,  of 
the  traveller's  lodging-place,  remarkable  for  their  brevity 
and  effectiveness.  The  bad  verses  made  by  scribblers  it 
is  best  to  say  nothing  about.  They  would  disfigure  the 
narrative  as  much  as  they  do  the  walls  of  mine  host's 
furnished  apartments. 

October  lyth. — To-day  we  were  detained  by  rain,  which 
does  sometimes  fall  in  October.  Left  at  eleven  A.M.,  and 
reached  Lieu-le-ho  in  the  evening.  This  is  an  important 
place,  as  being  the  point  from  which  the  lime  and  coal  of 
the  western  hills  are  conveyed  to  Tientsin.  On  the  way 
to  it  our  road  began  to  pierce  hills  of  loess,  that  dry,  fine, 
uniform  brown  dust  which  distinguishes  North  China 
and  forms  the  basis  of  its  soil,  as  also  that  of  Southern 
Moncjolia  and  Manchooria  for  several  thousands  of  miles. 
It  is  found  on  both  sides  of  the  Tai-hang  mountain  range, 
across  which  we  go  into  Shanse.      If  only  found  inside 


2o6  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

the  mountains,  it  might  be  called  a  lake  deposit,  but  it 
lines  the  mountains  on  their  eastern  slopes  just  as  much, 
and  covers  over  in  many  places  hills  of  granite  and  lime- 
stone in  such  a  fasliion  that  Eichthoven's  hypothesis  of 
dust-storm  agency  seems  the  best.  In  positions  on  the 
plain,  such  as  we  saw  to-day,  where  unstratified  masses  of 
loess  form  uniform  heaps  of  a  fine  mould  eminently  suit- 
able for  agriculture,  Pumpelly's  hypothesis  of  lake  and 
river  deposit  seems  inapplicable.  The  proper  place  for 
that  hypothesis  would  seem  to  be  the  beds  of  old  lakes, 
such  as  the  valleys  and  plains  of  Slianse.  The  vertical 
cleavage  of  which  Eichthoven  speaks  occurs  everywhere  in 
the  regions  occupied  by  this  formation. 

We  crossed  the  Tsing-ho,  which  comes  out  of  the  hills 
near  Loo-kow-chiau,  and  noticed  that  it  followed  the  line 
of  road  for  some  miles  on  the  left.  There  is  a  bridge 
similar  to  that  already  mentioned,  having  elephants  and 
lions  on  its  parapet,  at  Liang-hiang,  a  city  with  a  pagoda. 
The  crops  are  good  on  the  plain.  The  autumn  w^heat  is 
springing,  and  there  is  a  large  quantity  of  it  sown.  Before 
reaching  Lieu-le-ho  we  travelled  along  a  broad  stone  cause- 
way for  nearly  a  mile.  The  large  collection  of  water  from 
brooks  and  hidden  springs  at  Lieu-le-ho  is  the  cause  of 
this.  Some  of  the  rivers,  as  the  Tsing-ho  and  Hwun-ho, 
flow  down  valleys  among  the  mountains,  and  so  reach  the 
plain.  Others  rise  from  springs  not  far  from  the  foot  of 
the  mountain  range.  (The  same  is  true  of  some  of  the 
streams  in  the  south  part  and  beyond  it.)  The  boats  at 
Lieu-le-ho  take  upwards  of  four  hundredweight  of  coal  or 
lime.  They  bring  back  wheat  and  other  cereals.  The 
town  has  five  hundred  houses. 

October  i8tJi. — Went  on  to  Cho-chow  to  breakfast. 
When  nearing  that  city  we  ferried  over  the  Ku-ma-ho,  a 
river  which  this  year  is  very  full.  It  comes  from  Kwang- 
chang,  north-west  of  Yu-chow,  and  running  eastward  it 
passes  the  western  imperial  tombs  on  the  north  and  pro- 
ceeds to  Cho-chow.     A  busy  scene.     Crowds  of  passengers 


CHO-CHOW.  207 

filled  the  i'enyboats.  On  them  also  were  placed  the 
burdens  of  the  mules,  which  were  coaxed  to  walk  across 
through  the  water.  A  large  party  of  soldiers,  armed  with 
foreign  rifles  and  bayonets,  passed  at  the  same  time.  They 
were,  they  said,  searching  the  roads  for  bandits.  They 
carry  their  rifles  each  of  them  horizontally  on  their 
shoulders  and  a  banner  in  the  other  hand.  A  red-balled 
oflicer  was  in  charge  of  this  detachment,  or  was  travelling 
with  them.  Sellers  of  new  dates  and  pastry  were  plying 
their  trade  on  the  river  banks.  Now  and  then  a  foolish 
donkey  would  fall  behind  his  companions  and  hesitate  to 
cross  the  river  with  them.  The  half-naked  pilots  had 
then  the  task  of  persuading  the  beast  to  proceed. 

Fish  abounds  at  Cho-chow.  We  had  the  celebrated 
Le-yu  (carp)  for  breakfast.  A  short  walk  from  the  ferry 
brought  us  to  a  handsome  bridge,  at  the  north  end  of  which 
is  a  lofty  open  arch  spanning  the  way.  Its  inscriptions 
state  that  the  bridge  and  causeway  are  2000  feet  in  length. 
It  was  erected  by  a  public-spirited  magistrate  within 
the  last  half- century.  The  wall  and  gates  of  Cho-chow 
are  imposing.  Within  the  north  gate  are  two  pagodas  of 
the  Sung  dynasty.  The  northern  can  be  ascended  by  a 
staircase  in  the  very  thick  and  substantial  walls.  They 
are  five  stories  high.  The  south  pagoda  has  a  carving  of 
Buddha  in  relief  on  each  face. 

As  we  passed  on  to  Sung-lin-tien,  six  miles,  and  Kau- 
pei-tien,  fifteen  miles,  we  noticed  on  the  road  indications 
that  we  were  in  a  country  of  old  traditions.  Who  in 
China  has  not  heard  the  story  of  Lieu-pei,  who,  in  a.d. 
221,  succeeded  in  maldng  himself  Emperor  of  Western 
China  by  the  aid  of  Choo-ko-liang,  the  wisest  of  coun- 
sellors, and  Kwan-yun-chang,  the  most  loyal  of  heroes  ? 
It  was  a  pleasure  to  the  emperors  and  literati  of  the  Sung 
dynasty  to  exalt  these  men  to  a  higher  place  in  history 
than  they  had  held  before.  They  made  of  one  a  model  of 
an  emperor  who,  belonging  to  the  Han  imperial  family, 
showed  in  the  struggle  for  power  patience,  sagacity,  and 


2o8  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

perseverance.  The  Manclioo  dynasty  has  followed  them  in 
investing  Kwan-te  with  honours,  and  encouraging  his 
worship  as  god  of  war  and  the  embodiment  of  loyal  and 
military  virtues.  A  monument  on  the  roadside  informs 
the  traveller  that  the  adjoining  village  is  the  home  of 
Lieu-pei.  Another  indicates  the  former  home  of  Chang- 
fei,  his  faithful  friend  and  follower.  It  is  the  ancient 
Leu-sang,  "the  mulberry  of  the  tower."  The  village  of 
Chang-fei  close  by  is  also  marked  by  a  monument.  Near 
it  was  the  well  from  which  the  same  old  worthy  drew 
water.     So  says  tradition. 

Arriving  at  Sung-lin-tien,  six  miles  from  Cho-chow,  we 
struck  the  Yu-chow  road  from  the  west.  At  fifteen  miles 
we  reached  Kau-pei-tien.  Here  we  were  among  the  last 
of  the  cotton  crops,  interspersed  with  fields  of  young 
wheat.  The  cotton  plants  are  kept  short  by  the  gi'owers 
that  the  yield  of  cotton  may  be  increased.  They  are  only 
eighteen  inches  high. 

Sahirday,  Odoher  igfh. — This  morning  we  left  the  city  of 
Ting-ling  on  our  right.  It  has  a  small  well-built  wall. 
South  of  it  was  a  monument  to  Tan-tae-tsi  of  the  contend- 
ing states  (Chan-kwo),  B.C.  300.  He  belonged  to  the  Yen 
kingdom,  in  the  modern  province  of  Chihle.  He  publicly 
invited  able  men  to  his  service,  and  at  the  locality  indi- 
cated by  the  monument  entertained  a  hero,  King-ke,  in  a 
tower  called  Hwang  (yellow)  kin  (cloth,  i.e.,  as  here  meant, 
turban)  tai  (tower).  This  hero  undertook  to  assassinate 
the  prince  of  Tsin,  father  of  the  Emperor,  who  burned  the 
books.  He  wished  thus  to  show  his  loyalty  to  the  prince 
of  Yen.  While  approaching  with  drawn  sword  to  carry 
out  his  fell  design  he  was  attacked  and  slain  by  the  ser- 
vants of  the  King  of  Tsin, 

We  now  passed  the  Ku-ma-ho,  a  river  which  flows  from 
Kwang-chang,  east  of  the  Tsi-king-kwan,  cuts  the  Great 
Wall,  leaves  the  imperial  western  cemetery  on  the  south, 
and  proceeds  by  Lai-shui  and  Ting-ling,  south  of  Cho-chow, 
to  the  lakes.     We  crossed  it  at  Peiho,  thirteen  miles  from 


SLOW  SPREAD  OF  KNOWLEDGE.  209 

Cho-chow.  The  water  was  here  too  deep  to  allow  the 
mules  to  take  over  their  burdens,  which  were  intrusted 
to  the  ferrymen.  The  mules  as  tliey  crossed  were 
nearly  swimming  on  account  of  the  great  depth  of  the 
water  caused  by  the  late  floods.  After  breakfasting  at 
Ku-cheng,  a  small  town  chiefly  noteworthy  for  its  inns, 
which  are  numerous,  a  little  north  of  An-su,  the  city  where 
we  were  expecting  to  stay  during  Sunday,  we  arrived  at 
Pai-ta-tsun,  a  village  with  a  handsome  pagoda  belonging 
to  it.  An-su  is  a  busy  town  with  a  northern  suburb  a  mile 
long,  and  having  many  monuments  in  honour  of  the  most 
respected  inhabitants.  The  Catholics  have  a  school  and 
mission  twenty-three  Chinese  miles  west  from  the  city. 
They  are  spoken  of  as  having  a  staff  of  bishop  and  clergy, 
schools  for  children  of  varying  ages,  church,  and  houses 
used  as  residences. 

Sunday,  October  20th. — My  companions  went  out  to  dis- 
tribute books  and  speak  to  the  people.  Having  an  ailment 
which  prevented  walking,  I  stayed  in  the  inn  to  receive 
visitors.  Soon  there  came  some  representatives  of  very 
good  families.  I  spoke  of  the  Christian  religion  and  of 
the  motion  of  the  earth.  After  explaining  the  roundness 
of  the  earth  and  its  diurnal  and  annual  revolution,  I  asked 
them  if  they  believed  in  it.  The  more  talkative  hesitated  ; 
the  quietest  said,  "Yes,  we  do."  On  asking  if  they  had  heard 
of  "  Cheng-cha-pi-ki,"  a  work  in  three  volumes  published 
l)y  the  Emperor's  first  envoy  to  Europe,  Pin-chun,  now 
deceased,  they  replied  that  they  had  not.  A  work  like 
this,  elegantly  written  in  prose  and  poetry,  fails  to  reach 
far  in  (Jhinese  society.  The  Chinese  conductors  of  the 
book  trade  do  nothing  to  push  the  circulation  of  new 
works.  A  few  hundred  copies  are  sold  in  Peking ;  that  is 
all.  A  few  years  hence  it  may  be  reprinted  by  some  rich 
antiquarian  in  a  distant  city.  None  of  my  visitors  had 
lieard  of  the  motion  of  the  earth.  Our  teaching  permeates 
slowly  among  the  reading  class  through  the  general  poverty 

of  the  people,  the  deadness  of  trade,  the  want  of  news- 
10  0 


2IO  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

papers,  the  stagnation  of  ideas,  and  the  absence  of  rapid 
and  regular  traffic.  The  innkeeper  also  came  to  ask  for 
books,  and  told  me  the  position  of  my  visitors. 

We  found  an  odious  peculiarity  in  An-su.  Singing 
girls  with  guitars  infest  the  quarters  of  travellers,  and 
seem  to  be  an  institution  in  all  the  inns.  They  enter  the 
doors  of  rooms  uninvited,  and  if  complaint  is  made  to  mine 
host,  he  laughs,  and  says  it  is  impossible  to  prevent  it.  He 
is  probably  bribed  to  display  this  indifference.  All  the 
evening  we  heard  their  singing  in  the  rooms  in  our  vicinity 
with  the  guitar  accompaniment.  The  singing  was  not 
good.  It  is  merely  a  pretence  by  which  to  gain  admit- 
tance to  the  inns.  They  say,  "  I  wish  to  go  and  sing,"  and 
then  enter  with  the  air  of  professionals.  In  one  of  the 
most  famous  dramatised  tales  a  Chinese  girl,  distinguished 
for  filial  piety  and  other  virtues,  begs  her  way  to  the 
capital  in  search  of  her  lost  husband  with  her  guitar.  On 
arriving  she  finds  him  distinguished  for  his  scholarship,  a 
Chwang-yuen,  a  court  favourite,  and  his  fortune  made. 
This  very  popular  story  has  surrounded  with  much  respec- 
tability the  notion  of  a  girl  singing  with  a  guitar.  But  in 
the  present  day  it  is  a  sort  of  badge  of  the  unprincipled  to 
sing  to  the  guitar. 

Monday,  October  21st. — To-day  we  arrived  at  mid-day  at 
Pau-ting-foo  after  first  crossing  the  Tsau  river,  we  taking 
a  boat  and  the  mules  fording  with  their  loads.  Long 
before  reaching  the  city  we  heard  distant  firing.  This  was 
at  the  Kin-tai,  "golden  tower,"  a  review  ground  on  the 
south-west  of  the  city,  the  usual  position  for  the  military 
drill  of  cities.  When  cities  are  large  and  have  available 
space  within  the  walls,  the  exercise  ground  is  inside.  The 
walls  of  Pau-ting  are  only  four  English  miles  in  circuit. 
It  is  small  for  its  rank  as  chief  city  of  the  province,  and 
will  probably  soon  be  reduced  to  the  rank  of  an  ordinary 
department.  The  governor-general  since  the  Tientsin 
massacre  has  been  ordered  to  remain  nine  months  of 
the  year  at  that  far  larger  and  more  infiuential  emporium. 


PILGRIM  LAMAS.  21 1 

A  few  years  more  may  show  the  Government  that  even 
for  the  winter  the  residence  of  the  governor-general  at 
Pau-ting  is  not  needed.  Tientsin  will  then  become  the 
capital  of  the  province.  As  we  passed  through  Pau-ting 
the  wall  was  under  repair.  We  met  an  American  friend 
in  an  inn.  He  was  on  his  way  from  Kalgan  and  Yu-chow 
to  Tientsin,  and  had  come  by  Kwang-chang  and  Foo-too-yu 
to  the  north-west. 

Leaving  this  city,  we  changed  our  route  to  westward. 
As  in  the  morning,  the  land  appeared  very  productive.  In 
addition  to  the  cultivation  of  cotton,  wheat,  and  other 
cereals,  the  people  spin  and  weave.  They  also  make  new 
paper  out  of  old,  an  art  which  is  much  practised  all  over 
this  province.  We  stopped  for  the  night  at  Pei-poo,  and 
here  we  were  said  to  be  500  h  (160  miles)  from  Woo-tai. 
This  is  the  ordinary  route  of  Lamas  from  Peking,  and 
along  the  road  may  occasionally  be  seen  more  than  usually 
devout  pilgrims  prostrating  themselves  on  the  ground  all 
the  way  to  the  sacred  mountain.  Their  idea  is  this : 
Woo-tai  is  the  favoured  region  of  the  Buddhas  and  of  Man- 
joosere,  its  great  Bodhisattwa.  To  bow  down  and  fall  at 
full  length  before  the  images  is  meritorious.  To  do  this 
all  along  the  road  must  be  far  more  meritorious.  The  pil- 
gi'im  says  to  himself : — "  I  will  make  a  vow.  I  will  there- 
fore prostrate  myself  at  every  third  step.  Though  the 
distance  is  long,  I  shall  arrive  in  a  month,  two  months,  or 
three,  and  I  can  walk  back  without  prostrations  on  my 
return."  It  is  only  the  Mongols  that  do  this.  We  do  not 
hear  of  the  Chinese  making  this  sort  of  painful  pilgrimage. 
The  Mongols  are  willing  on  account  of  their  reverence  for 
Woo-tai-shan  and  a  wish  to  conform  to  a  fashion  that  has 
grown  up  among  them.  The  Chinese,  however,  have  their 
cages  of  spiked  nails,  in  wliich  they  stay  three  months 
without  once  coming  out,  and  unless  that  imprisonment  is 
easier  to  endure,  we  have  in  it  an  equivalent. 

We  came  on  to  Wan-hien  to  breakfast.     It  is  a  small 
city,  with  no  people  within  the  walls.      Soon  after  we 


212  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

passed  jNIa-ri-shau,  a  hill  standing  alone  in  the  plain  with 
temple  and  pagoda  upon  it.  It  is  shaped  like  a  horse's  ear, 
and  is  therefore  called  Ma-ri-shan.  Beyond  it,  to  the  west 
ten  U,  is  Tang-hien,  the  residence  of  the  Emperor  Yan 
before  he  came  to  the  throne.  Near  it  flows  the  Tano- 
river.  From  the  river  and  country  he  is  called  Tang-yau. 
His  mother  lived  at  a  neighbouring  hill.  But  are  we  in 
these  days  to  respect  any  old  traditions  ?  The  merciless 
critics  of  ancient  China  are  not  willing  to  leave  anything 
remaining  of  that  curious  fabric  of  grandeur  and  dry 
details  wdiich  the  Chinese  call  early  history.  The  temple 
where  Tang-yau  is  worshipped  at  present  is  farther  south 
on  the  Koo-kwan  route,  and  we  shall  not  be  near  it. 

At  Tang-hien  we  found  the  people  collected  from  all 
the  country  round  at  a  fair.  The  street  w^as  crowded. 
There  were  at  least  three  thousand  buyers,  sellers,  and 
lookers-on,  clad  chiefly  in  wadded  cotton  jackets  and 
leather  or  cotton  trousers.  Announcing  our  books  for  sale 
at  the  usual  unremunerative  prices,  we  were  beset  with 
eager  purchasers,  and  at  dusk  we  closed  our  account  with 
a  heap  of  cash  amounting  to  a  dollar  and  a  half,  wdiich 
represents  a  very  large  number  of  separate  selling  trans- 
actions. That  night,  probably,  in  every  village  round,  our 
books  would  be  read  by  the  flickering  flame  of  the  little 
oil  lamp,  with  its  tiny  wick  of  rush  pith,  which  has  served 
the  Chinese  for  so  many  ages.  In  out-of-the-way  places 
candles  are  not  to  be  had.  After  not  many  years,  perhaps, 
the  people  here  will  all  be  using  petroleum  brought  by 
railway  from  West  China,  where  it  abounds.  It  will  be 
burned  probably  in  iron  lamps  made  by  Shanse  artisans 
following  American  models,  and  sold  at  a  shilling  a  piece, 
a  price  which  the  people  may  be  far  better  able  to  give 
then  than  now.  If,  however,  they  have  to  wait  fifty  years 
for  such  an  improvement,  it  is  very  lamentable,  and  so 
much  the  worse  for  the  people,  who  now  certainly  have 
very  dark  houses  at  night,  except  at  a  wedding,  when 
candles  made  of  mutton-fat  brighten  the  scene. 


ROADSIDE  SCENES.  213 

We  had  a  reminder  that  many  Lamas  pass  this  way  in 
Tibetan  inscriptions  on  the  walls  of  the  inn. 

We  have  been  travelling  on  limestone  at  Wan-hien,  and 
apparently  sandstone  at  Tang-hien.  We  began  to  meet 
stoneware  jars  going  on  carts  to  Pau-ting-foo.  They  sell  at 
1 300  cash  each,  or  a  little  more  than  a  dollar.  They  stand 
in  houses  to  hold  water,  and  are  called  shui-kang. 

Wednesday,  October  2yl. — Left  Tang-hien  at  three  a.m., 
and  reached  Ta-yang-tien  at  nine,  forty  le  distant.  The  road 
is  agreeably  interspersed  with  pretty  villages.  The  poplar 
grows  abundantly,  and  forms  a  very  gracefid.  feature  in  the 
scenery.  The  brown  soil  is  relieved  by  its  tapering  form 
and  white  bark,  which  is  remarkably  contrasted  with  its 
dark  green  leaves.  Here  may  be  seen  houses  of  stone 
built  up  like  fortresses.  There,  a  team  of  heavy  drays 
laden  with  cotton,  corn,  or  large  kangs  of  stoneware.  Here 
a  boy  looks  down  from  a  bank  forty  feet  high  with  mingled 
curiosity  and  fear,  as  he  notices  strange  people  with  light 
eyes  and  large  beards  riding  past.  Who  they  are  he  knows 
not.  He  registers  it  in  his  memory  as  an  unexplained 
wonder.  We  have  now  entered  the  hilly  country.  Clear 
streams  of  mountain  water,  tasting  slightly  of  lime,  pass 
over  a  sandstone  bottom.  Fine  beds  of  cabbages  swelling 
into  a  globular  shape  are  now  seen.  They  are  not  like  the 
oblong  Shantung  cabbage  called  hwang-ya,  "  yellow  bud," 
but  like  our  home  cabbages.  They  abound  in  Shanse. 
Date  trees,  their  leaves  all  dropped,  good  beans,  sweet 
potatoes,  and  the  Chinese  yam,  frequently  meet  the  eye ; 
with,  here  and  there,  an  old  barn  partly  ruined  and  open 
to  the  weather,  but  secured  against  storms  by  large  bundles 
of  straw  and  kau-liang  stalks  stuffed  into  holes,  evidently 
adapted  to  induce  the  observant  traveller  to  moralise  on 
the  faults  of  the  lazy  owner. 

Our  mules,  walking  at  a  rate  not  exceeding  three  miles 
an  hour,  enjoy  the  approach  of  the  hilly  country,  for  they 
are  accustomed  to  climb,  to  plant  the  foot  carefully  between 
stones,  to  turn  round  at  a  sharp  angle,  to  go  up  steep  paths. 


214  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

to  wade  through  rivers,  and  occasionally  to  be  a  little  tricky 
and  upset  their  riders.  If  in  dusty  soil  the  mule  puts  his 
forefeet  down  and  kneels,  let  the  rider  know  that  he  is 
bent  on  having  a  roll  in  that  soft  bed  ;  and  if  he  can  get 
him  up  again  without  losing  his  seat  on  the  animal's  back, 
let  him  do  so. 

We  crossed  the  Tang-ho  river  soon  after  leaving  Ta-yang- 
tien.  It  flows  through  the  Great  Wall  at  Tau-ma-kwan 
to  Ho-kien-foo,  a  prefecture  to  the  south-east.  There  was 
a  wooden  plank  bridge  placed  just  below  the  junction  of 
the  river  with  the  Siau-tsing-ho,  a  stream  whose  valley  we 
now  entered  and  ascended  for  several  miles,  crossing  the 
river  in  various  places,  the  water  not  reaching  above  lialf- 
way  up  the  mules'  legs.  Leaving  this  valley,  we  mounted 
by  successive  terraces  a  tract  of  high  country,  presenting  to 
our  view  everywhere  nothing  but  broad  and  well-culti- 
vated surfaces  of  loess.  At  length  at  Ke-yu  we  reached 
the  bed  of  another  stream,  the  Sha-ho,  the  third  river  we 
have  seen  to-day.  The  first  was  the  Tang-ho,  deep  and 
rapid,  rushing  swiftly  over  stones  and  sand,  which  we  saw 
but  once.  The  second  was  the  Siau-tsing-ho,  which  we 
crossed  six  times  while  travelling  as  many  miles.  At 
each  ford  there  is  a  plank  bridge  for  foot  passengers,  among 
whom  are  many  Lamas  on  pilgrimage.  The  planks  are 
placed  loose  on  strong  piles,  that  they  may  be  easily 
removed  at  the  swelling  of  the  river  in  summer  and  at  its 
freezing  in  winter.  The  piles  and  planks  are  all  removed 
when  a  flood  is  expected.  The  eight  miles  of  high  loess 
country  which  we  passed  before  reaching  the  Sha-ho  may 
be  referred  to  as  illustrating  the  probable  origin  of  that 
formation.  It  appears  to  me  to  be  an  immense  sandhill 
eight  miles  wide,  lying  between  two  rivers,  and  formed,  as 
sandhills  are,  by  wind.  The  winds  of  a  few  years  (thirty, 
a  hundred,  or  two  hundred,  we  cannot  tell  how  many) 
suffice  to  heap  up  sandhills  round  the  walls  of  Peking, 
between  the  buttresses,  to  the  height  of  ten,  twenty,  or 
more  feet.     The  wall  of  the  Temple  of  Heaven,  where  it 


MANUFACTURE  OF  STONEWARE  JARS.        215 

has  an  open  exposure,  affords  examples.  In  tlie  country  a 
clump  of  trees  or  a  village  will  be  found  affording  sufficient 
shelter  for  the  rapid  formation  of  sand  heaps  of  consider- 
able size.  So  I  believe  the  ancient  dust  which  forms  the 
loess  formation,  and  the  excellent  agricultural  qualities  of 
which  have  been  described  by  Richthoven,  was  blown 
against  the  barrier  consisting  of  the  mountain  range,  Tai- 
hano'-shan,  at  the  roots  of  which  we  now  were.  The  result, 
after  an  immense  lapse  of  years,  was  such  heaps  of  that 
formation  as  we  crossed  to-day.  Since  then  the  rivers 
have  been  quietly  undermining  both  the  loess  heaps  and 
the  sandstone,  limestone,  or  granite  on  which  they  rest, 
and  have  carried  away  vast  quantities  of  earth  and  stone 
to  the  plains  on  the  east.  Eichthoven  seems  to  have  seized 
on  the  right  idea  for  explaining  how  hills  of  tliis  kind  were 
formed. 

In  the  Sha-ho  valley  we  found  what  we  had  been  ex- 
pectmg  to  see — the  manufactory  for  large  water-jars.  It  is 
at  a  place  called  Wa-le,  or  "  tile  village."  Here  we  saw  the 
process.  The  clay  is  caUed  kmi-tsi-too,  and  is  found  close  by. 
The  kiln  is  cut  in  a  loess  hill  which  stands  isolated  in  the 
valley.  At  the  bottom  of  the  kiln,  which  is  excavated  at 
the  east  end  of  the  hill,  is  a  long  large  furnace.  Over  it  is 
spread  a  network  of  iron  bars,  and  on  this  rests  a  pile  of 
new  jars,  large  and  small,  to  the  height  of  fifteen  feet. 
The  jars  are  placed  carefully  one  over  another  in  readiness 
to  be  fired.  Next  to  the  firing-house  on  the  west  were 
storehouses  for  jars  kept  in  stock.  These  storerooms  are 
cut  deep  into  the  loess,  and  their  roofs  and  side  walls  are 
supported  by  wooden  framework  on  the  principle  adopted 
in  coal  mines.  Next  was  the  potter's  room,  where  two 
men  sit,  the  potter  and  his  assistant.  The  potter  sits  on  a 
low  stool  with  a  large  round  flat  stone  before  him,  which 
revolves  from  right  to  left  horizontally.  He  places  his  lump 
of  softened  clay,  of  a  dark  colour,  well  kneaded,  on  the  flat 
stone.  Inserting  his  fist  in  the  lump,  while  the  stone  re- 
volves, a  sort  of  flower-pot  shape  is  given  to  it.     He  gradu- 


2i6  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

ally  enlarges  the  lioUow  made  by  his  fist  till  it  becomes 
the  interior  of  a  two  feet  high  and  eight  inches  wide  jar. 
The  quantity  of  clay  needed  for  a  jar  of  a  required  size  is 
previously  known.  He  also  uses  in  moulding  a  flat  oblong 
piece  of  wood  and  also  a  round  piece.  By  these  he  com- 
pletes the  moulding  of  the  jar,  which  shows  gutters 
parallel  with  the  base,  which  are  not  ornamented,  and 
can  scarcely  be  intended  for  any  use.  The  wheel  is  turned 
by  the  agency  of  another  man  who  is  placed  a  few  feet 
distant,  and  draws  a  handle  in  and  out  horizontally. 
This  turns  a  wheel  near  the  ground,  round  which  is 
wrapped  a  band  of  hemp.  The  band  turns  the  potter's 
wheel  on  which  is  placed  the  moulding  board.  The  jar 
was  made  in  about  five  minutes,  and  a  hundred  can  be 
made  in  a  day.  Large  quantities  stood  in  the  vicinity 
ready  for  sale.  Jars  spoiled  in  making  are  used  in  build- 
ing cottages.  We  saw  several  huts  whose  walls  were  thus 
constructed.  The  working  wheel  is  called  the  water- 
wheel,  shui-lun ;  the  other  is  the  dry  wheel,  kan-lun. 
The  boy  who  drives  is  the  chiau  kan  lun  tsi  tih.  This 
word  chiau  is  the  same  that  is  used  in  turning  a  capstan 
on  canals. 

Coal  is  brought  twenty  le  down  a  valley  which  de- 
bouches at  Wa-le  near  the  pottery.  It  is  anthracite,  and 
not  equal  to  that  of  the  mines  near  Peking.  We  passed 
the  night  at  Ke-yu. 

Thursday,  October  24th  —  Wang-hwai. — This  morning 
we  saw  signs  of  the  inundation  of  last  summer.  Many 
trees  lay  on  the  sands  of  the  Sha-ho,  up  which  we  were 
now  travelling  westward  towards  the  pass  Lung-tsiuen- 
kwan.  Willows,  poplars,  and  date  trees  abound  in  this 
valley.  The  people  are  beginning  to  carry  away  the  fallen 
trees,  some  of  which  are  dead  and  others  still  green. 

We  were  glad  to  find  that  vaccinators  come  to  these 
mountain  valleys  in  the  spring.  They  charge  400  cash  for 
girls  and  800  for  boys.  The  people  will  allow  their  little 
girls  to  take  small-pox  rather  than  pay  as  much  for  them 


NATIVE  POLITENESS.  217 

as  for  boys.  A  curious  fact  this,  indicating  a  contempt  for 
girls,  which,  though  highly  discreditable,  is  felt  by  the 
parents.  In  the  village  where  we  made  the  inquiry,  about 
four  hundred  are  vaccinated  every  spring.  The  fee  for 
each  is  ninepence  on  the  average.  How  much  better  taken 
care  of  are  our  own  poor  in  England,  who  get  vaccination 
for  nothing,  and  will  be  fined  if  they  neglect  it ! 

We  were  told  that  yincj-tai  or  tsoo-po-tsi,  known  among 
us  as  goitre,  occurs  200  le  to  the  north  of  these  valleys  near 
Kwang-chang,  but  is  very  rare  in  this  part,  perhaps 
because  the  country  here  is  open  and  the  valleys  wide. 
The  great  width  of  our  valley  is  also  a  preservative  against 
sudden  floods.  We  noticed  loess  lying  in  many  places  in  a 
thick  deposit  on  sandstone  or  limestone.  The  road  led  us 
over  several  hills  consisting  of  these  three  formations. 

Friday,  October  2$th. — We  slept  last  night  at  Foo-ping, 
a  city  built  on  the  banks  of  the  Sha-ho.  We  went  in  by 
a  small  gate,  and  reached  an  inn,  where,  as  we  lay,  we  could 
hear  the  rushing  sound  of  the  river  a  few  rods  away.  At 
places  like  this  the  traveller  must  expect  very  small  rooms 
and  close  quarters.  One  would  not  suppose  that  in  a  poor 
inn  in  a  far-off  place  the  people  would  care  much  for  the 
rules  of  politeness,  but  wherever  the  Chinaman  goes  he 
takes  these  rules  with  him.  As  I  took  a  cup  of  tea  care- 
lessly from  the  inn  boy  with  my  hand  over  it,  he  checked 
me,  saying  good-naturedly  that  a  cup  of  tea  should  always 
be  taken  with  both  hands  placed  beneath,  otherwise  there 
is  a  want  of  respect.  How  many  times  do  we  offend  un- 
consciously the  native  notion  of  what  ceremony  requires, 
when  an  inn  waiter  in  a  little  mountain  town  is  piqued  at 
the  want  of  respect  shown  in  an  act  such  as  this ! 

In  the  plains  meals  are  paid  for  according  to  what  is 
asked  for  by  the  dish.  Each  dish  is  charged.  But  among 
the  mountains  there  is  a  fixed  rate  for  a  meal,  the  same 
for  men  and  for  animals.  The  rate  is  140  cash,  or  about 
threepence,  for  each  person  or  animal.  This  includes  lodging. 
The  mules  receive  straw  but  no  corn  from  the  inn.     The 


2i8  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

owner  is  expected  to  bring  corn  with  him.  Tlie  food 
supplied  for  men  is  of  a  homely  kind.  No  other  can  be 
provided,  so  that  travellers  having  a  dainty  palate  had 
better  not  go  or  carry  a  cook  with  them. 

Silver  begins  to  be  lo  per  cent,  dearer.  A  tael  only 
brings  1500  copper  cash)  instead  of  1650.  The  scale  used 
subtracts  8  per  cent,  per  tael  on  the  weight,  and  the 
number  given  for  a  hundred  is  99.  In  this  way  it  will  be 
found  that  the  custom  in  regard  to  exchange  goes  against 
the  traveller  in  every  particular.  In  Peking  we  receive 
98  for  a  hundred.  In  Cho-chow  and  Ansi  we  had  only  96. 
We  use  the  market  scale,  while  the  people  prefer  the  old 
smooth  scale  or  Lau-kwang-kwang.  One  thing  we  were 
saved  from  on  the  route  we  took.  There  was  no  counting 
of  660  to  the  thousand.  The  system  of  counting  165  one 
ticm,  325  tw^o  timi,  and  so  on,  is  said  to  have  been  intro- 
duced by  Chang-si-kwei  of  the  Tang  dynasty,  subjugator 
of  Corea.  In  South  China  1000  coj)per  cash  count  as  a 
thousand.  In  the  north  500,  and  in  some  places  660,  are  a 
thousand.  The  system  of  calling  660  a  thousand  exists 
south  and  east  of  Peking,  but  not  to  the  west. 

Noon,  at  Lii-ying-'poo. — We  came  on  forty  U  to  this 
place.  There  is  a  large  inn  here.  Bituminous  coal  is 
used,  and  is  brought  from  a  place  forty  le,  east  of  Woo-tai 
city.  Four  hundred  cash  a  pecul  is  paid  for  it  here.  The 
prosperity  of  the  inn,  which  appeared  evident  from  exten- 
sive building  operations  going  on  at  present,  depends  on 
the  traffic  along  the  road,  which  consists  of  cotton  bales 
and  cotton  cloth  going  to  Shanse,  and  wool,  Avater,  and 
tobacco  coming  back  again.  It  is  on  the  trade  route 
between  Pau-ting-foo  and  the  north  part  of  Shanse,  includ- 
ing Kwei-hwa-cheng,  Coal  is  here  called  shi-tan,  "stone 
charcoal."  Ironware  comes  from  Yu-hia,  300  le  distant. 
Leaving  the  Sha-ho  after  following  it  ten  le,  we  went  up 
the  valley  of  another  stream,  the  Wan-nien-chiau-ho,  which 
flows  down  its  channel  rapidly  through  boulders,  pebbles, 
and  sand. 


CHINESE  TRAVELLING.  219 

In  the  evening  we  were  at  Lung-tsiuen-kwan.  There  is 
a  fort  below  the  pass,  and  it  is  here  that  customs  are 
collected.  As  we  entered  the  collectors  asked  us  to  pay 
duty.  They  spoke  in  a  bold  and  noisy  tone.  I  said  to  an 
old  man  who  showed  the  most  violence  of  demeanour, 
"  Do  not  be  violent.  We  are  going  to  an  inn  to  stay  the 
night.  Come  there  and  look  at  our  passports."  They 
then  ceased  to  be  noisy,  and  never  appeared  at  the  inn. 
Some  more  sagacious  person  perhaps  told  them  that  to 
demand  duty  from  foreigners  is  irregular. 

We  found  evidence  to-day  that,  though  we  had  stopped 
a  Sunday  on  the  road  and  were  travelling  very  slowly,  we 
were  going  faster  than  many  Chinese  would  do,  for  a  party 
came  up  to  us  at  noon  that  had  passed  us  a  day  from  Peking. 
Seventy  U  (twenty-three  miles)  a  day  contented  them.  A 
dissolute  young  man  in  a  mule  sedan  was  chief  of  the 
cavalcade.  He  seemed  to  have  been  made  an  invalid  by  a 
vicious  life.  As  we  stayed  both  a  day  at  An-su  and  half  a 
day  at  another  town,  we  had  gained  one  day  in  six  as 
compared  with  the  Chinese  travellers ;  yet  we  were  im- 
patient and  they  were  contented.  The  first  point  with  the 
Chinese  is  not  to  be  made  uncomfortable;  with  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  the  object  is  not  to  be  slow. 

Our  course  now  lay  up  a  valley  with  vast  granite  boulders. 
It  reminded  us  of  the  Nan-kow  Pass  near  Peking.  The 
water  has  immense  force  when  increased  by  its  depth. 
The  hydraulic  pressure  thus  caused  works  great  destruc- 
tion. We  saw  its  effects  in  the  Siau-tsing-ho.  An  idol 
shrine,  image,  table,  and  offerings  had  been  placed  under 
a  steep  cliff.  Helpless  as  Dagon  the  idols  looked  on  the 
sand,  leaving  in  their  original  station  on  a  ledge  of  the 
rock  no  trace  to  show  where  they  were  formerly,  except 
some  rude  painting  made  by  devotees  on  the  cliff. 

A  cross  inscribed  on  walls  and  stones  excited  our 
curiosity.  It  is  for  the  protection  of  the  harvest.  The 
villagers  form  a  club  for  mutual  aid  against  robbery.  A 
watch  is  kept  by  the  members  in  succession.     If  a  thief 


220  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

is  caught,  he  is  brought  before  the  club  for  punishment. 
A  mark,  such  as  the  character  +,  is  inscribed  on  the  walls 
of  enclosed  lands  guaranteed  by  the  club.  If  any  villager 
refuses  to  join  the  society,  his  land  is  not  marked,  and  he 
has  no  guarantee  against  robbery. 

We  were  now  beneath  the  Great  Wall  in  a  little  fort. 
Here  we  passed  a  night  in  an  inn.  In  the  morning  we 
were  detained  till  gun-fire,  which  takes  place  at  dawn. 
The  gates  are  not  opened  till  then. 

Saturday,  October  26th. — Breakfast  at  Shi-tsui  at  eleven. 
This  morning  we  went  through  the  pass  called  Lung- 
tsiuen-kwan,  which  is  very  steep  and  high.  On  the  top 
of  the  hill  we  found  oatmeal  and  potatoes  ready  boiled  for 
travellers.  They  are  excellent  after  a  steep  walk  up  the 
hill. 

Foo-ping  is  in  the  province  of  Chihle.     At  Lung-tsiuen- 
kwan  we  left  that  province  and  entered  the  department  of 
Tai-yuen-foo  in  Shanse.     The  wall  separating  Shanse  and 
Chihle  dates  from  the  time  of  the  contending  states,  Chan- 
kwo,  B.C.  300.     When  the  Chau  kingdom  separated  itself 
from  the  Yen  kingdom  by  a  wall,  Shanse  was  Chau,  and 
Chihle  was  Yen.      Afterwards,  in  the  time  of  Tsin-shi- 
hwang,  B.C.  220,  of  Sui-yang-te,  a.d.  500,  and  of  the  Ming 
dynasty,  particularly  when  extensions  and  repairs  of  the 
various  boundary  walls    were   made,  this   branch  would 
receive  attention.     Such  strength  as  it  has  now  is  owing 
to  the  exertions  of  the  Ming  dynasty  to  keep  itseH"  in 
security  against  the  Mongols.     Tsin-shi-hwang  was  the 
greatest  builder  among  many  builders  who  lived  before 
him  and  after  him.     Like  them,  he  found  that  mountain 
barriers  formed  the  natural  boundary  of  their  country,  and 
like  them  he  thought  it  best  to  fortify  the  passes.     The 
forts  and  gates  at  the  passes  were  the  essential  idea.     The 
ancient  rulers  of  China  thought,  however,  as  the  Eomans 
thought  in  Britain,  that  a  continuous  wall  to  connect  these 
forts  should  be  built  to  impart  an  air  of  greater  strength 
and  security.     Tsin-shi-hwang  only  extended  further  the 


WORSHIP  OF  LOCAL  DEITIES.  221 

ideas  of  earlier  rulers  when  he  ordered  Meng-kwa  to  build 
a  wall  all  the  way  from  Shan-hai-kwau,  on  the  sea-coast, 
to  the  western  end  of  Shense,  west  of  the  Yellow  Eiver. 
Lung-tsiuen-kwan  is  not  so  important  as  Tsi-king-kwan 
and  Ku-yung-kwan  farther  to  the  north.  Wlien  armies 
have  invaded  the  province  of  Chihle,  they  have  come  by 
Ku-yung-kwan  on  the  Kalgan  road  in  three  cases  out  of 
ten,  and  by  Tsi-king-kwan  near  the  imperial  tombs  in 
seven  cases  out  of  ten.  This  is  partly  caused  by  the 
easier  travelling  on  the  road  which  leads  from  Kwang- 
chang  (and  Yu-chow  higher  up)  down  the  valley  of  the 
Ku-ma-ho  to  Tsi-king-kwan.  Once  past  that  fort,  and  a 
rapid  descent  down  a  good  road  brings  the  traveller  to  the 
productive  plains  of  Yu-chow^  and  Pau-ting-foo. 

The  country  now  known  as  the  Pau-ting-foo  depart- 
ment was  a  battle-field  for  two  centuries  between  the 
Tang  and  early  Sung  dynasties.  Chen-ting-foo  was  the 
middle  capital  of  the  Kie-tan  kingdom  at  a  still  earlier 
time.  North  China  under  that  Tartar  dynasty  had  then 
three  capitals,  one  of  them  in  Mongolia. 

At  Lung-tsiuen-kwan  we  were  probably  1000  feet  higher 
than  at  Pa-ta-ling,  the  top  of  the  Nan-kow^  Pass.  It  is 
twenty  h  from  the  fort  to  the  top  of  the  pass.  At  Nan- 
kow  the  distance  is  forty-five.  The  steep  r^ses  much  more 
rapidly  at  Lung-tsiuen-kwan. 

A  steep  mountain,  or  any  mountain  at  all  remarkable, 
is  supposed  to  have  a  special  local  spirit,  who  acts  as 
guardian.  The  Chinese  Government  provides  for  maintain- 
ing certain  sacrifices  to  the  deities  of  mountains  on  a  large 
scale  for  the  Empire.  But  among  the  people  the  same 
religious  belief  exists,  and  leads  them  to  worship  the 
spirits  of  certain  mountains  in  small  shrines  or  temples  on 
the  roadside.  In  one  such  shrine  on  the  way  up  to  the 
top  of  tlie  pass  were  placed  five  small  tablets  of  wood. 
On  the  middle  one  was  inscribed  the  "  tablet  of  the  spirit 
of  the  mountain."  On  the  left  were  a  tablet  to  the 
spirits  of  the  five  roads,  and  another  to  the  spirit  of  local 


222  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

fever.  On  the  right  side  were  a  tablet  to  the  Tsiang- 
kiun  named  Peh,  and  to  the  spirits  of  water,  gTass,  and 
corn.  Tsiaug-kiun  is  a  military  title  corresponding  to  our 
"  general." 

Near  this  temple  was  another  to  a  divinity,  Liow-wang, 
who  is  in  these  regions  prayed  to  for  rain.  Both  shrines 
were  newly  repaired  and  gaudily  painted. 

Not  far  away,  and  lower  down  the  mountain,  was  a 
temple  to  Kwan-yin,  who  was  called  on  the  inscribed 
tablets,  Ling-ying-fo,  "the  efficacious,  prayer-answering 
Buddha."  On  both  sides  of  the  road  were  numerous 
tablets  set  up  by  admiring  devotees.  Here  follow  sundry 
specimens  of  the  sentences  inscribed  on  them: — Kivang-kio, 
"wide  perception;"  Me-yeio,  "secret  aid;"  Hwa  yu  man 
/e?i^,  "  Flowers  fall  like  rain  over  the  whole  mountain;" 
Tsi  hang 2^00  too,  "The  ship  of  mercy  universally  saving;" 
TFbo-2?oo-2/Mi<7,  " Never-failing  efficacy;"  Kioio-koo,  "Saves 
from  misery;"  Nan  hai  ta  shi,  "Great  teacher  of  the 
Southern  Sea." 


(   223   ) 


CHAPTER    XVIII. 

JOURNEY   TO   WOO-TAI-SHAN   CONTINUED — FROM 
LUNG-TSIUEN-KWAN   TO   WOO-TAI. 

After  crossing  the  Tai-hang-ling,  the  summit  of  which 
separates  the  provinces  of  Chihle  and  Shanse,  we  soon  passed 
a  Lama  monastery  called  Arshan-bolog,  "  the  temple  of  the 
fountain  of  the  genii."  It  was  originally  an  ordinary 
Buddhist  temple  in  the  hands  of  Chinese  priests  or  hos- 
hangs,  and  was  founded  in  the  reign  of  Wan-leih.  When 
the  Emperor  Kanghe,  of  the  Tartar  dynasty,  passed  this 
way  on  the  road  to  Woo-tai  to  worship  there  the  images 
adored  by  the  Lamas,  he  observed  that  the  idols  in  this 
temple  were  broken  and  neglected.  He  was  angry  at  the 
priests  and  gave  it  in  charge  to  Lamas.  There  are  now 
twelve  Lamas  there,  who  all  came  from  Eastern  Mongolia. 
This  incident  and  the  handsome  style  of  the  buildings 
show  how  great  was  the  attachment  of  that  Emperor  to 
the  Buddhist  religion.  Yet  at  one  period  in  his  life  he 
was,  say  the  Jesuits,  nearly  converted  to  Christianity. 
He  Avas  probably  a  man  open  to  impressions,  easily 
wrought  upon,  but  not  capable  of  being  induced  to  aban- 
don the  traditional  etiquette  of  emperors  by  adopting  the 
relioion  of  the  scholars  from  the  Western  Ocean. 

The  descent  was  slow  and  slightly  inclined.  We  soon 
came  to  another  handsome  temple  occupied  by  more  than 
a  hundred  Lamas,  who  rushed  out  with  great  eagerness  to 
see  us.  The  temple  is  called  Tai-loo-sze,  "  temple  of  the 
foot  of  the  terraces,"  i.e.,  of  Woo-tai.  Twelve  of  the 
Lamas  are  IMongol  and  the  rest  Chinese. 

The  valley  leading  to  Shi-tsui  goes  south-west  and  con- 


224  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

tinues  its  descent  to  Woo-tai  city.  We  were  to  take  a 
turn  in  a  nearly  opposite  direction  at  Shi-tsui  conducting 
us  up  the  valley  of  a  stream  which  fifty  miles  to  the  north 
flows  past  the  monasteries  of  Woo-tai. 

We  met  a  crowd  of  travellers  at  Shi-tsui.  The  inn  was 
large  and  a  good  meal  was  provided.  Among  other  things 
there  were  sweet  cakes  made  of  flour,  sugar,  and  a  little 
sesamum  oil.  They  taste  something  like  shortbread. 
Hear  this,  ye  Scotchmen ;  you  can  still  enjoy  in  China  the 
luxuries  of  home.  There  was  also  a  dish  of  celery.  The 
market  was  busy  and  the  buyers  and  lookers-on  numerous. 
A  merchant  came  forward  and  said,  "I  have  read  your 
books."  To  the  answer,  "What  book?"  he  repKed,  "The  Old 
Testament."  Of  this  he  had  completed  the  perusal  of  two 
volumes  (in  all  there  are  three).  He  showed  himself  to  be 
tolerably  familiar  with  Genesis.  He  had  received  the 
book  from  a  friend  who  had  obtained  it  from  a  Bible 
Society's  colporteur.     I  gave  him  other  books. 

We  noticed  in  passing  forward  up  the  long  Woo-tai 
valley  the  special  customs  of  the  people.  As  we  are  now 
high  above  the  zone  of  wheat  cultivation,  oats  are  extremely 
common.  A  flail  is  used  to  thresh  with.  Two  men  stand 
opposite  to  each  other,  each  with  a  flail,  and  beat  the  oats 
right  lustily.  The  part  held  in  the  hand  is  round,  while 
the  flying  stick  is  constructed  of  plaited  willow  forming  an 
oblong  flat  piece  of  basketwork.  The  oatmeal  is  usually 
eaten  in  the  form  of  macaroni  or  as  porridge  in  a  rice  bowl. 

We  passed  an  overshot  mill  which  was  at  work  pressing 
oil.  The  stream,  which,  to  increase  and  steady  its  force,  is 
collected  in  a  dam,  is  directed  upon  a  large  vertical 
wooden  wheel.  Eound  its  circle  are  several  small  troucjhs 
which  the  stream  fills  with  water.  The  weight  of  the 
water  turns  the  wheel.  A  horizontal  wheel  is  attached 
which  revolves  by  means  of  cogs.  The  axle  of  this 
horizontal  wheel  is  an  upright  shaft,  which  goes  through 
the  floor  of  a  room  above,  and  there  turns  the  stone  which 
presses  out  the  oil. 


A  MONGOL  LAMA.  225 

North  of  the  mill,  advancing  up  the  valley  of  the  little 
stream  which  joins  the  Siau-tsing-ho  at  Woo-tai  city,  vre 
found  it  necessary  to  ford  the  little  river  frequently.  Many 
of  the  Lama  pilgrims  are  pedestrians,  and  for  them  trees  are 
laid  across  the  stream.  Mules  ford  by  crossing  the  water, 
which  is  broad  and  shallow.  The  bridges  consist  of  two, 
three,  or  fom'  trees,  sometimes  slightly  flattened  with  a 
hatchet,  but  oftener  they  are  left  in  their  original  round 
shape.  Travellers  are  expected  to  have  good  nerves  and 
not  to  grow  giddy  on  slight  occasions.  The  soles  of 
Clrinese  shoes,  being  of  cloth,  are  good  for  stepping  along 
a  prostrate  tree  laid  across  a  stream. 

We  passed  several  monasteries  as  darkness  came  on  and 
afterwards.  We  were  now  near  the  Nan-tai,  the  southern- 
most of  the  five  mountain  peaks  which  make  up  Woo-tai. 
It  was  too  dark  to  make  inquiries.  We  proceeded  steadily 
onward  till  we  reached  the  town  of  Tai-hwai.  Here,  at 
a  quarter  to  seven  p.m.,  we  arrived,  and  found  an  inn 
belonging  to  a  monastery,  where  lodging  was  given  to  us. 
A  visitor,  who  was  a  Mongol  Lama,  came  in  to  see  us 
while  our  evening  meal  was  preparing.  He  belonged  to 
the  Harchin  tribe.  He  took  tea  willingly,  offered  his 
snuff  bottle,  and  professed  friendsliip.  This  we  reciprocated, 
and  stated  our  belief  in  the  common  brotherhood  of  man- 
kind. To  this  he  cordially  assented,  for  Buddhism,  as 
held  either  by  Lamas  or  Hoshangs,  teaches  its  votaries  to 
look  on  universal  brotherhood  as  a  great  truth.  He  was 
elegant  in  manner,  and  wished  to  consider  himself  as  our 
friend  in  future.  He  could  not  read  Mongol  nor  expound 
Tibetan,  and  is  therefore  without  depth. 

Sunday,    October    2yth — Tcd-hivai-Jdai. — A    cold    frosty 

morning.     I  went  out  to  look  at  our  surroundings.     A  few 

Lamas  were  stirring  at  an  early  hour,  and  were  rapidly 

moving  along  the  street  in  the  cold  air.     Eound  the  town 

smoke  began  to  rise  from  the  various  monasteries.     Traffic 

was  proceeding  north,  west,  and  south  from  our  little  town 

along  the  valleys  that  lie  in  those  directions.     Half  a  mile 
10  P 


226  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

to  the  north  stands  Poo-sa-ting  on  an  eminence,  the  resi- 
dence of  the  chief  Lama,  and  the  richest  and  largest 
Lamasery.  Beyond  it  towers  up  above  its  neighbour 
summits  the  North  Tai. 

Over  the  south  gate  of  the  little  town  of  Tai-hwai  there 
is  a  small  temple  to  Hormosda  Tingri  and  Dara-ehe.  Both 
are  known  to  Chinese  Buddhism,  but  in  Cliina  it  is  not 
usual  to  place  Yu-hwang-shang-te  (Hormosda)  in  a  temple 
as  guardian  of  a  city  gate.  We  were  now  in  Lama-land, 
and  must  expect  to  see  arrangements  peculiar  to  Lama 
Buddhism.  Hormosda  was  in  this  case  just  a  Chinese 
Yu-hwang.  He  faced  south.  Dara-ehe  is  the  Mu-fo 
(mother  Buddha)  of  the  Chinese,  and  Ehe  Borhan  of  the 
Mongols.^  She  has  a  Bodhisattwa's  diadem,  or,  as  the 
Mongols  call  it,  a  tidcm.  On  all  of  its  five  leaves  there 
was  a  picture  of  Buddha.  On  each  side  of  her  is  seen  a 
tall  branch  of  flowers,  in  this  instance  the  lotus,  reaching 
to  her  head.  On  her  forehead  is  a  spot  or  small  elevation 
which  the  attendant  Lamas  told  us  sends  forth  a  hair 
which,  when  Dara-ehe  wishes,  goes  out  for  thousands  of 
miles  in  an  instant.  This  is  an  instance  of  the  masfical 
miracle  in  which  the  Buddhist  imagination  indulges  itself 
without  limit.  For  what  object  is  the  hair  extended  ?  To 
show  the  power  of  the  goddess,  in  order  that  the  worshippers 
may  be  filled  with  reverence  for  her.  We  conversed  for 
some  time  with  three  or  four  Lamas  in  a  court  beside  this 
temple,  who  kindly  entertained  us  with  tea.  We  discoursed 
on  their  religion  and  ours.     They  received  our  books  gladly. 

I  afterwards  walked  to  the  Shoo-siang-si,  a  monastery 
standing  on  the  north-west  of  the  town  and  south-west 
from  Poo-sa-ting.  A  party  of  Mongol  women,  youths,  and 
men  were  just  entering,  pilgrims  visiting  each  principal 
shrine  in  rotation  that  they  might  prostrate  themselves  in 
each.  Such  in  the  Middle  Ages  was  a  great  part  of  Chris- 
tian worship  even  in  England.  They  proceeded  to  the 
great  hall  of  Manjoosere,  patron  deity  of  Woo-tai.     Here 

1  She  belongs  to  the  Sivaistic  element  in  Buddhism. 


WORSHIP  OF  CHI-CHA  Y.  227 

he  is  seen  as  a  large  gilt  ligure  seated  on  an  immense  lion. 
The  lion  is  many  coloured.  The  name  Shoo-siang  means 
image  of  Manjoosere  or  Wen-shoo.  Round  the  image 
just  mentioned  is  a  representation  of  Tien-tai,  constructed 
of  moulded  figures,  Buddhist  personages,  trees,  &c.,  occupy- 
ing three  sides  of  the  hall.  It  is  erected  on  a  high  dais  of 
brickwork  and  reaches  to  the  ceiling.  The  object  is  to 
give  in  successive  landscapes,  amid  rockwork  and  marine 
scenery,  the  history  of  the  celebrated  Buddhist  establish- 
ments at  Tien-tai  in  the  province  of  Che-kiang. 

Lohans  appear  here  to  the  number  of  five  hundred. 
Some  of  them  appear  floating  on  the  waves  of  the  Southern 
Sea,  others  are  seen  on  clouds  and  mountains.  Near  a 
temple  of  Yu-hwang  appears  Tamo  the  Indian  patriarch, 
Bodhidharma,  with  his  pupil  Sheng-kwang,  standing  be- 
fore him.  The  pupil,  a  Chinese  Buddhist,  holds  in  his 
right  hand  his  own  left  arm,  which  he  has  just  cut  off  near 
the  shoulder  as  a  sign  of  his  devotion  and  dominion  over 
the  body.  This  is  said  to  have  taken  place  in  the  fifth 
century.  Beyond  this  group  sits  the  Buddhist  sage  Chi- 
chay,  with  Lohans  near  him  and  four  Yakshas  raging  round 
him,  who  fail  to  disturb  his  tranquillity.  Among  native 
Buddhist  authors  his  writings  have  been  perhaps  the  most 
e.\.tensive  in  influence.  The  priest  who  showed  me  these 
things  was  very  frank  and  communicative.  Two  other 
Chinese  priests  led  me  into  a  room  to  take  tea.  The  room 
showed  signs  of  comfortable  living  and  also  of  some 
literary  industry.  A  manuscript  on  the  table  contained 
a  collection  of  tracts  on  the  doctrine  which  is  "  not  dark," 
meaning  Buddhism.  When  I  told  them  of  our  religion, 
the  abandonment  of  monasticism,  heart- worship  instead  of 
image-worship,  and  the  history  of  Jesus,  they  assented. 
Buddhism  is  an  extremely  tolerant  religion. 

October  28th. — The  Hoshangs  in  Woo-tai  are  almost  all 
Shanse  men.  Natives  of  the  south  could  not,  they  say, 
live  in  so  cold  a  region  as  Woo-tai ;  nor  could  Northern 
Buddhists  live  in  the  south. 


228  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

The  Lamas  at  Woo-tai  are,  if  Mongols,  almost  ex- 
clusively from  Eastern  Mongolia,  indicating  the  import- 
ance of  that  region  in  regard  to  wealth  and  population. 
We  are  surprised  at  the  large  number  of  Lamas  who  can 
read  the  Mongol  writing.  In  Peking  they  can  usually 
read  only  the  Tibetan  character.  Here  they  receive  our 
books  cheerfully.  Yet  it  is  probable  that  in  Peking  if 
the  number  of  the  Mongols  who  can  read  were  told  it  would 
not  be  small.  They  are  more  reticent  and  retiring  there 
than  here,  because  in  that  city  a  foreign  costume  is  no 
rarity. 

On  the  east  side  of  the  valley  from  Shoo-siang-si  is  a 
monastery  called  Kwang-an-si.  It  has  been  recently  re- 
paired and  decorated.  Eed  and  green  paint  and  yellow 
silk  and  satin  have  been  used  in  profusion.  Hollow  brass 
images,  life-size,  were  very  abundant  and  seemed  quite 
new.  We  visited  three  tie,ii8  or  chapels  all  riclily  fitted. 
Tibetan  pictures  of  the  favourite  mythological  scenes  and 
personages  of  the  Lama  religion  hung  on  the  walls.  Out- 
side these  chapels  were  stone  and  slate  tablets  com- 
memorating the  work  of  restoration  and  chronicling  the 
gifts  of  Mongol  princes.  Among  them  were  the  names 
of  the  Kalka-hans  or  chief  princes,  and  several  southern 
Wangs  or  princes. 

Odoher  2gth. — We,  Mr.  Wheler  and  I,  went  up  a  path  on 
the  eastern  ascent  leading  to  a  monastery  from  which  a 
fine  view  is  obtained  of  the  whole  valley,  here  presenting  a 
beautiful  and  busy  scene.  Large  droves  of  camels  are  seen 
grazing  over  the  valley.  The  bazaar  close  to  Poo-sa-ting  is 
full  of  life.  Mongols  are  constantly  here  buying  from  the 
Chinese  shopkeepers.  The  great  monastery  Poo-sa-ting 
stretches  its  immense  length  along  a  conspicuous  hill  just 
above.  In  the  same  group  were  some  Tibetan  monasteries 
where  more  than  a  hundred  Lamas  from  Eastern  and  West- 
ern Tibet  permanently  reside.  A  boy  Lama  of  ten  years 
went  with  us  as  compagnon  dc  voyage.  We  were  amused  at 
liis  tricks.     When  we  spoke  to  Lamas  he  stayed  at  a  dis- 


VISIT  TO  THE  CHIEF  LAMA'S  RESIDENCE.      229 

tance  too  far  for  recognition  by  them.     He  was  afraid  not  of 
us  but  of  them.     He  talked  freely  enough  in  their  absence. 

To  the  north  of  Poo-sa-ting,  a  mile  or  more  up  the 
valley,  we  visited  the  monastery  of  the  Seven  Buddhas. 
The  Buddhas  here  referred  to  are  six  legendary  and  one 
historical — that  is,  Shakyamuni  liimself  and  the  six  who 
are  said  to  have  preceded  him.  They  are  placed  from 
west  to  east  in  the  order  of  time. 

Here  we  also  saw  a  large  figure  of  Ochirwani  with  three 
eyes  and  five  skulls  on  his  head.  He  held  in  his  hand  a 
vadjra,  apparently  a  short  sceptre,  but  really  a  symbol  of 
magical  power.  It  is  believed  to  be  thrown  by  the  genius 
of  the  thunderstorm,  and  is  therefore  sometimes  called  a 
thunderbolt.  This  vadjra  is  the  characteristic  of  the  image. 
In  Mongol  this  Sanscrit  word  has  become  ocliir,  and  hence 
the  word  Ochirwani.  Behind  the  skulls  are  five  wheels 
and  five  flames.  He  is  one  of  the  Hindoo  Devas,  and  is 
regarded  as  having  unconquerable  strength,  which  is  sym- 
bolised by  the  vadjra,  in  Chinese  kin-hang,  "  diamond," 
"  what  cannot  be  broken."  He  belongs  to  the  same  class 
as  the  four  gi-eat  heavenly  kings  found  in  the  entrance 
hall  of  Chinese  monasteries. 

Behind  Ochirwani  w^as  Shakyamuni,  with  Manjoosere 
and  Samantabhadra  beside  him.  Near  them  was  a  picture 
of  Aryabolo,  otherwise  known  as  goddess  of  mercy. 

We  went  in  the  afternoon  to  the  chief  Lama's  temple, 
the  Poo-sa-ting,  built  on  the  flat  top  of  a  hill  about  400 
feet  high.  There  is  a  flight  of  109  broad  stone  steps  at 
the'  south  end.  A  w^ell-clad  Lama  at  the  gate  informed 
us  that  the  chief  Lama  was  employed  in  preparing  for  the 
cham-harail,  or  sacred  dance,  and  could  not  see  visitors. 
He  lives  in  the  south-east  part  of  the  monastery.  We 
proceeded  along  the  whole  range  of  buildings  to  the  north. 
At  the  back  of  the  halls  of  the  images  were  long  ranges  of 
lodging-rooms  for  Lamas,  forming  quite  a  little  to\vn,  for 
a  crowd  of  them  congregates  here  as  at  Yung-ho-kung  in 
Peking.     jMany  Mongol  women  are  seen  in  this  part,  pro- 


230  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

bably  all  belonging  to  pilgrim  parties,  who  find  quarters 
in  rooms  provided  for  them.  Many  ranges  of  buildings 
have  upper  and  lower  verandahs.  Elsewhere  are  seen 
Tibetan  houses  with  their  small  square  windows  in  the 
upper  part  of  a  strong  high  wall.  Among  the  pilgrims 
and  resident  Lamas  there  was  great  eagerness  for  our 
Mongol  catechism  and  tracts. 

Eeturning  to  the  chief  entrance,  we  found  that  the  secre- 
tary and  other  chief  attendants  of  the  Jasah  Lama,  as  the 
abbot  is  called  {jasali  means  governing),  were  prepared  to 
receive  us  in  their  apartments  in  front  of  his  residence. 
Our  entertainers  were  Tibetans,  speaking  fluently  both 
Chinese  and  Mongol.  They  treated  us  to  tea  with  milk, 
the  soo-tai-chay  of  the  Mongols.  An  elderly  man  with  a 
long  beard  named  Pan,  and  another,  both  from  Lassa,  had 
a  good  deal  of  conversation  with  us.  They  will  soon 
return  to  their  country.  They  knew  well  that  India,  the 
land  south  of  the  Ghoorka  country,  belongs  to  England, 
but  did  not  seem  to  be  aware  of  Hue  and  Gabet's  visit  to 
Tibet.  The  room  was  arranged  as  a  Chinese  room,  with 
heated  dais  or  hang,  and  cupboards  opposite.  It  was  kept 
warm  further  by  a  charcoal  or  coke  fire  without  smell,  and 
standing  on  a  brass  bason.  A  kettle  is  here  kept  hot  for  tea. 
The  hot  air  ascending  turns  a  praying  wheel  which  is  sus- 
pended for  the  purpose  from  the  ceiling.  We  intrusted  to 
our  entertainers  books  for  the  abbot,  namely,  the  Old  and 
New  Testament  in  Mongol,  with  catechism  and  tracts.  He 
sent  us  in  return  by  the  hands  of  Pan  Lama  two  bundles 
of  Tibetan  incense  with  several  sentences  of  complimentary 
expressions,  such  as,  were  we  comfortable  in  our  inn,  had  we 
a  pleasant  journey,  and  how  long  we  would  stay.  The 
incense  is  in  bundles  of  twelve  sticks,  twenty  inches  long. 

The  Poo-sa-ting  was  formerly  called  Chen-yung-yuen, 
"  temple  of  the  true  face,"  which  dated  from  the  fourth 
century.  The  Tartar  Emperor  of  the  day,  Hiau-wen-te, 
caused  twelve  temples  to  be  erected  round  the  monastery 
of  the  Han  Emperor  Ming-te,  then  in  existence,  and  sent 


INSCRIPTIONS  ON  DOORS.  231 

officers  periodically  to  worship  Buddha  there.  This  gives 
an  antiquity  to  the  Poo-sa-ting  of  fourteen  hundred  years,  if 
we  do  not  take  a  change  in  name  to  be  a  disturbance  of  its 
identity.  Nothing  is  now  known  respecting  the  locality  of 
the  other  eleven  temples,  or  of  the  original  monastery  erected 
in  the  Han  dynasty,  whose  name  was  Ta-fow-ling-tsiow-si. 

Ashoka,  monarch  of  all  India,  a  little  before  the  time  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  is  said  to  have  caused  the  spirits  and 
demons  of  the  air,  the  Kwei-shen,  to  erect  84,000  pagodas  in 
all  countries  to  receive  the  relics  of  Buddha.  Among  them 
was  one  at  Woo-tai.  Formerly  there  was  some  building 
which  connected  itself  with  this  tradition.  We  did  not 
learn  anything  of  it.  Three  of  the  84,000  relics  were  in 
China.  I  have  seen  one  in  the  province  of  Che-kiang,  in  a 
temple  near  Ningpo.  I  wished  to  see  another  at  Woo-tai, 
but  was  not  successful. 

At  the  doors  of  houses  where  Lamas  live  it  is  usual  to 
write  lucky  sentences  in  the  Cliinese  fashion.  They  are 
translated  into  Mongol  from  Chinese.  Here  follow  some 
specimens : — 

"  May  your  age  be  the  same  as  that  of  the  pines  in  the 
southern  mountains." 

"May  your  happiness  abound  as  the  waters  of  the 
Eastern  Sea." 

"  Nasu  anu  umun  agola  ne  narasun  adeli 
Boy  in  anu  jagon  dalai  ne  nsu  nieti;." 

The  Chinese  reads  : — 

"  Foo  joo  tung  hai  cbang  liow  shui, 
Show  pe  nan  slian  poo  Ian  «ung." 

Sentences  of  this  kind  keep  poetical  sentiments  before 
the  eye,  and  they  may  thus  have  a  soi'tening  and  refining 
effect  on  the  mind,  but  they  aid  suj)erstition  as  being 
founded  on  the  doctrine  of  luck,  and  promoting  its  hold  on 
the  people. 

An  old  and    young  Lama  came  to  our  inn,  the  latter 
a  boy  of  fifteen.     He  had  been  at  Woo-tai  four  years. 


232 


RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 


They  live  in  the  temple  of  Hormosda  Tingri,  a  short  way 
down  the  southern  valley.  The  boy  is  from  the  Ordos 
country  and  has  seen  there  the  tomb  of  Genghis  Khan. 
x4.griculture  is  practised  in  the  Ordos  country,  but  not  by 
members  of  his  family.  His  brother  attends  to  sheep  and 
Jiorses  in  preference.  I  gave  him  a  book  to  learn  to  read 
from.  The  old  Lama  said  he  would  find  some  schoolmaster 
or  lakshi  to  instruct  him.  We  learned  from  these  Lamas 
that  we  had  passed  the  Ehen-omai  ^  in  coming  to  Tai-hwai 
on  Saturday  evening.  It  is  an  exhibition  in  a  cave,  near 
which  is  a  temple,  twenty  Chinese  miles  south  of  the  town. 
This  morning  (Tuesday)  went  to  the  temple  of  the 
Ubegun  Manjoosere  west  of  Poo-sa-ting.  It  is  a  mile  up 
the  side  of  a  mountain.  The  image  is  that  of  an  old 
man,  one  form  assumed  by  Manjoosere,  having  a  white 
beard  three  inches  long.  He  is  placed  in  a  small  shrine. 
Heaps  of  small  silk  kerchiefs  on  his  hands  and  knees, 
placed  there  by  enthusiastic  worshippers,  prevented  the 
figure  from  being  well  seen.  Eound  the  hall  from  floor 
to  ceiling  were  ten  thousand  figures  of  Manjoosere,  in- 
dicating the  multiform  shapes  he  assumes  in  his  eftbrts  to 
save  men.  In  the  great  hall  behind,  Manjoosere  appears 
again  in  company  with  Samantabhadra  and  Kwan-yin.  He 
there  wears  the  crown  of  a  Bodhisattwa  over  the  oyster- 
shell  cap  of  a  Buddha,  and  with  no  beard.  All  these  per- 
sonages are  supposed  to  assume  various  metamorphoses. 
Manjoosere  carries  a  bow  in  his  left  hand  and  a  sceptre  in 
his  right.  In  colour  he  may  be  red,  white,  black,  green,  or 
yellow.  He  very  commonly  has  in  his  left  hand  a  flower. 
When  he  is  painted  with  eight  hands,  they  hold  a  small 
umbrella,  a  thunderbolt,  a  wheel,  and  other  things.  If  not 
seated  on  a  lion  he  sits  on  a  lotus  dais  with  bare  feet 
crossed,  the  soles  turned  up.  He  appears  frequently,  so  it 
is  believed,  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  valley,  taking  the 
shape  of  a  blind  man,  a  shepherd,  a  Lama,  or  some  other 
personage.     Once  he  appeared  as  a  poor  girl  who  left  her 

^  Womb  of  Buddha's  mother. 


LOCAL  LEGENDS.  233 

liair  to  be  buried  at  the  spot  now  known  as  Wen-shoo-fa-ta, 
"  the  tomb  of  Manjoosere's  hair."  It  is  on  the  Chung-tai, 
"central  terrace."  In  the  reign  of  Wan-leih  (sixteenth 
century)  this  tomb  was  repaired  and  the  hair  seen.  It  was 
of  a  golden  hue  and  emitted  a  many-coloured  light.  In 
the  twelfth  century  a  shepherd  named  Chau-kang-pe  saw 
a  strange  priest  enter  the  Na-la-yen  cave  on  the  Tung-tai 
and  leave  an  umbrella  there.  He  erected  a  tomb  in  which 
to  bury  it.  Not  far  from  tliis  tomb  a  woman  \yith  white 
hair  was  seen  once  washing  her  rice  bowl.  A  monk  named 
Ming-sin  asked  her  whence  she  came.  She  replied,  "  I  have 
come  from  Chung-tai  begging  food."  Then  in  a  moment 
she  disappeared,  and  nothing  was  seen  but  a  remarkable 
light  illuminating  the  grove  and  the  valley.  A  girl 
belonging  to  the  adjoining  city  of  Tai-chow  refused  to  be 
married,  and  ran  away  to  a  spot  called  the  "  Cliff  of  Mercy," 
also  at  the  Tung-tai.  Here  she  ate  the  leaves  of  a  certain 
plant  and  drank  dew.  Her  father  and  mother  came  and 
tried  to  compel  her  to  go  home  and  be  married.  She  then 
threw  herself  from  the  cliff,  but  when  in  mid-air  she  took 
wing  and  fled  into  the  upper  regions. 

Woo-tai  is  a  large  place.  The  valleys,  caves,  springs, 
rocks,  brooks,  tombs,  gardens,  images,  are  numberless.  A 
legend  is  attached  to  most  of  them,  and  the  marvellous 
things  said  to  have  been  seen  and  done  are  all  produced 
by  the  magic  power  of  Manjoosere,  the  patron  god  of  the 
mountain.  The  fountain  where  the  silver-haired  old 
woman  appeared  is  known  as  the  Wen-shoo-se-po-che, 
"the  fountain  where  Manjoosere  washed  his  rice  bowl." 
It  is  his  presence  that  causes  this  whole  region  to  appear 
to  the  inhabitants  to  be  instinct  with  legend.  The  maid 
that  would  not  marry  was  a  metamorphosis  of  Manjoosere. 

The  live  colours  are  distributed  among  the  five  moun- 
tains, and  the  flowers  that  grow  on  the  Nan-tai  are  said  to 
have  the  same  five  colours.  These  flowers  are  dried  to 
make  medicine  of,  and  visitors  to  Woo-tai  purchase  little 
packets  to  bring  away  with  them.     They  make  a  little  tea 


234  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

by  infusing  tliem  in  hot  water,  and  think  that  they  do 
them  good.  If  the  partaker  does  not  perceive  any  benefit 
to  his  own  health  by  these  medicines,  he  consoles  himself 
with  the  reflection  that  others  are  more  successful  in 
obtaining  powerful  aid  from  Manjoosere,  by  which  their 
bodily  ailments  are  cured.  This  was  the  way  in  which 
the  matter  was  represented  to  me  by  a  Liang  Lama,  a  friend 
of  mine  at  the  Yung-ho-kung,  who  had  himself  brought 
some  packets  of  medicine  witli  him  from  Woo-tai. 

The  view  of  the  sacred  valley  from  the  temple  of  the 
Aged  Manjoosere  is  very  fine.  Just  in  front  is  the  Poo-sa- 
ting. Up  the  north  valley  several  other  monasteries  are 
seen.  Beside  them  winds  the  road  which  leads  up  the 
Hwa-yeu-ling.  The  pass  of  this  name  crosses  a  shoulder 
of  the  North  Tai  and  East  Tai.  Up  the  steep  the  road  is 
seen  to  bend  circuitously.  Next  day  we  were  to  leave 
Woo-tai  by  this  route.  To  the  south  lay  the  little  town  of 
Tai-hwai,  where  our  inn  was,  and  in  the  near  neighbour- 
hood of  Poo-sa-ting  was  a  cluster  of  monasteries,  the 
Mongol  bazaar,  and  a  collection  of  buildings  looking  like  a 
small  town,  where  the  animals  belonging  to  travellers  and 
to  the  monasteries  are  taken  care  of.  These  groups  of 
buildings  lent  variety  to  the  valley,  which,  on  account  of 
the  brown  appearance  of  the  stunted  autumn  grass,  needed 
this  relief  where  it  was  not  pierced  by  a  silvery  rushing 
brook  which  flows  from  the  north  down  the  valley  till 
hidden  by  the  hills  of  the  southern  landscape.  To  the 
west  the  view  looks  towards  the  North  Tai ;  to  the  east 
the  East  Tai  is  visible. 

We  went  on  to  the  Dara-ehin-sum,  "  the  temple  of  the 
mother  Buddha."  The  worship  of  this  divinity  was  intro- 
duced in  the  Tang  dynasty,  when  Sivaism  entered  the 
Buddhist  religion.  The  Hindoos,  who  from  that  time 
forward  came  to  China  and  Tibet,  seem  to  have  been  all 
propagators  of  Sivaistic  Buddhism.  It  was  from  the 
seventh  to  the  fifteenth  century,  anterior  to  Lamaism,  and 
subsequent  to  the  contemplative  school,  the  clian-men,  that 


IMAGE  OF  DARA-EHE.  235 

this  form  of  the  Buddhist  religion  flourished.  The  festival 
of  the  hungiy  ghosts,  the  magical  movements  of  the  hands, 
the  use  of  iron  and  bronze  mirrors,  with  Sanscrit  charms, 
and  an  image  of  the  Buddha  mother  upon  them,  belong  to 
this  age.  We  were  now  to  see  a  temple  specially  devoted 
to  the  honour  of  Dara-ehe.  There  were  two  image  halls. 
The  first  represented  the  twenty- one  metamorphoses  of 
Dara,  all  in  sitting  shape,  arms  and  chest  bare.  The 
long  right  arm  touches  the  lotus-flower  dais  on  which 
she  sits.  A  large  hau-hwang  (literally  "  hairy  glory,"  in 
allusion  to  the  parallel  hair-like  rays  which  are  repre- 
sented upon  it)  forms  a  back  screen  for  her  body,  and  a 
coloured  circle  for  her  head.  She  assumes  at  pleasure 
the  favourite  five  colours.  Her  head-dress  is  usually 
that  of  five  tufts  with  a  top-knot;  but  in  this  hall  she 
wore  the  Poosa  crown  of  six  leaves.  On  her  left  is  in 
every  instance  a  standing  flower.  Behind  her  were  the 
three  Buddhas,  past,  present,  and  future.  They  hold  the 
place  of  honour,  while  Dara-ehe  is  most  prominent.  New 
images,  when  introduced  into  the  temples  of  Northern 
Buddhism,  could  not  push  out  the  older  ones.  They 
could  only  be  placed  in  front  of  them  or  near  them. 

In  the  other  principal  hall  was  Buddha,  and  in  an  ante- 
room Tsung-kaba,  the  founder  of  Lamaism,  who  lived  only 
four  hundred  years  ago.  His  form  is  repeated  in  several 
large  pictures.  The  stools  and  cushions  for  daily  worship 
were  all  arranged  here,  this  being  the  hall  for  morning  and 
evening  prayer. 

A  Lama,  whom  I  met  at  Kalgan  five  years  ago,  pre- 
sented himself  at  this  temple.  He  says  that  he  has  led 
here  a  moderately  happy  life  for  four  years.  When  I  saw 
him  formerly  he  was  employed  by  an  American  missionary 
at  Kalgan  as  teacher  of  the  Mongol  language.  I  think 
he  looks  back  with  satisfaction  to  his  more  varied  and 
interesting  life  at  that  place. 

The  observance  of  the  sacred  dance,  "  Cham  1  harail,"  at 

1  Cham,  a  Tibetan  word,  "to  dance." 


236  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

Woo-tai,  a  masquerade  of  Hindoo  gods  going  in  procession, 
is  after  the  model  employed  at  Yimg-ho-kimg  in  Peking. 
At  Poo-sa-ting  there  are  first  ten  days  of  chanting,  from  the 
6th  to  the  15th.  The  dance  and  masquerade  are  on  the 
last  two  days.  The  books  used  are  the  Kongso.  The 
performers  are  about  sixty  in  number,  and  they  practise 
their  parts  for  two  months  beforehand. 

The  Lama  from  Kalgan  told  me  that  at  Woo-tai  it  is  the 
custom  for  boy  Lamas  to  wear  red.  When  young  men 
they  put  on  tsi,  or  purple-brown  clothing;  when  old  they 
wear  yellow.  He  thinks  there  are  two  thousand  Mongol 
Lamas  in  Woo-tai ;  otliers  think  there  are  not  more  than 
seven  hundred.  Statistics  are  difficult  to  procure  on 
account  of  the  floating  character  of  the  population.  Lamas 
are  fond  of  wandering,  and,  if  of  frugal  habits,  can  easily 
obtain  a  hospitable  reception  in  temples.  They  flock  in 
crowds  to  Woo-tai,  and  prostrate  themselves  at  the  various 
shrines  with  great  apparent  fervour.  Of  Buddhist  priests, 
Chinese  by  birth,  there  are  several  hundreds.  Then  there 
are  also  many  Chinese  Lamas.  The  fashion  is,  when  the 
Chinese  become  Lamas,  for  them  to  chant  Tibetan  prayers, 
and  to  have  in  their  temples  the  same  images  and  costumes 
which  are  customary  in  Tibet. 

I  gave  the  Kalgan  Lama  at  his  request  a  Mongol  Tes- 
tament. He  wished  it  for  some  friend.  He  is  himself 
greatly  injured  by  opium  smoking. 

Lamas  coming  on  pilgrimage  swell  the  number  of 
resident  Mongols  greatly.  So  also  the  Mongol  laity  are 
very  fond  of  visiting  Woo-tai,  especially  women,  to  worship 
the  images.  We  noticed  some  of  them  at  the  pagoda 
south  of  Poo-sa-ting.  This  pagoda  is  in  appearance  like 
that  within  the  Ping-tseh-men  of  Peking.  It  consti- 
tutes a  striking  object  on  entering  the  Woo-tai  valley  from 
the  south.  It  has  at  its  base  an  impression  of  the  soles  of 
Buddha's  feet  cut  in  a  block  of  marble  and  facing  out- 
wards.  His  hands,  also  cut  in  the  marble,  are  seen  near. 
More  than  three  hundred  praying  wheels  are  attached  to 


PIL GRIM  P  URCHA  SES.  237 

p         I -J — J 


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238  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

tan  are  improvised  by  the  use  of  movable  furniture  in  a 
short  space  of  time  in  front  of  temples,  to  be  used  for  as 
many  days  as  required.  According  to  the  Lama  notion  the 
hoto-mandal  ^  represents  the  city  where  each  divinity  sits 
in  state  in  Buddha's  land.  Sometimes  the  hoto-mandal 
supports  offerings  in  front  of  the  image  of  Buddha. 

The  pilgrims  are  also  conducted  to  see  each  marvel  in 
the  various  temples.  At  the  back  of  the  large  Dagoba  is 
a  revolving  library,  turned  by  two  men,  entering  at  the 
floor  beneath  it.  It  is  sixty  feet  high  and  has  eight  sides. 
The  Chinese  copy  of  the  Ganjur  is  inside  it.  The  visitor 
sees  the  whole  vast  wheel  turning  slowly  from  east  to 
west.  All  praying  wheels  should  turn  in  the  direction  in 
which  the  sun  moves.  There  was  before  the  time  of  the 
Taipings  a  revolving  library  like  this  in  the  Ling-yin 
monastery  at  Hangchow ;  I  saw  it  about  twenty  years  ago. 
There  is  also  one  at  the  Yung-ho-kuncj  in  Peking. 

The  Mongol  women  are  fond  of  buying.  They  appear 
in  the  shops  discussing  with  the  bazaar  men  the  prices 
of  articles.  Almost  everything  they  can  need  in  tents  is 
to  be  purchased  here.  The  head-dresses  of  the  women 
vary  with  their  tribe.  Pearls,  coral,  and  silver  are  very 
profusely  used  by  them,  and  often  cover  the  whole  head. 
Their  black  hair  is  put  up  in  large  rings,  one,  two,  or 
more  in  number,  and  varying  in  position  according  to  the 
recognised  usage  of  their  tribes. 

The  Mongol  women  are  very  kind  to  strangers,  and  give 
the  impression  to  travellers  on  their  grassy  wilds  that  they 
are  less  selfish  than  the  Chinese.  They  part  readily  with 
milk  and  cheese,  and  will  rise  in  the  middle  of  the  night 
to  give  up  their  bed  to  some  footsore  wayfarer.  They 
keep  a  light  burning  in  their  tents,  which  serves  a  double 
purpose.  It  is  an  offering  to  the  household  gods  and  a 
waymark  to  travellers.  The  traveller  pushes  the  tent 
door  aside,  enters,  stirs  the  fire,  and  makes  his  meal  while 

1  In  Sanscrit,   man  is  "to  worship;"   mandari,   "a  town,"   "a  temijle." 
Jloto,  in  Mongol,  is  a  "city." 


DAILY  LIFE  OF  LAMAS.  239 

the  inmates  are  in  bed  in  the  interior  of  the  tent.  In  this 
abounding  hospitality  the  Mongol  women  are  animated 
partly  by  natural  kindness  of  disposition,  partly  by  religious 
motives.  Being  very  fervent  Buddhists,  they  believe  that 
oood  actions  are  meritorious,  and  will  be  the  means  of 
bringing  upon  them  and  on  their  families  great  happiness. 

The  Mongol  women  rejoice  in  fast  riding,  and  may  be 
seen  on  their  ponies  with  their  husbands  on  their  native 
plateaux  riding  neck  to  neck  without  ever  showing  signs  of 
a  desire  to  fall  behind. 

Each  tent  has  its  little  images.  They  are  Shakyamuni 
Borhan,  founder  of  Buddhism,  Geser  Han,  champion  of 
Buddhism,  Galin  Ejin,  god  of  fire,  the  spirit  who  presides 
over  cookery  and  the  safety  of  the  home. 

Their  devotion  to  their  religion  renders  them  very  will- 
iuo-  to  give  up  their  sons  to  be  Lamas,  and  also  induces 
them  to  make  long  pilgrimages  to  Peking  and  Woo-tai  in 
order  to  worship  the  sacred  images  and  relics  of  their 
divinities. 

The  richest  monastery  in  Woo-tai  is  the  Hung-tsiuen-si. 
It  has  a  copper  temple  among  its  curiosities.  The  Poo-sa- 
ting is  also  very  rich.  It  has  landed  estates  supposed  to 
bring  into  the  treasury  several  tens  of  thousands  of  taels 
annually.  The  lands  of  the  monasteries  are  in  Shanse, 
but  also  in  Pau-tiug-foo,  Chen-ting-foo,  &c.,  belonging  to 
the  metropolitan  province.  A  large  sum  is  conferred  each 
winter  by  the  Emperor  on  the  Tibetan  chiefs  of  the  monas- 
tery during  their  visit  to  Peking,  where  they  appear  at  the 
New  Year  festivities. 

The  daily  life  of  most  Lamas  must  be  regarded  as 
monotonous.  Their  duties  are  chiefly  reading  prayers. 
Some  are  engaged  in  instructing  young  Lamas,  taking  care 
of  buildings  and  property,  arranging  for  special  days  of 
worship,  and  study  of  their  own  department  of  Buddhist 
theology.  More  than  half  the  houses  in  Tai-hwai  belong  to 
them.  The  proprietorship  of  our  inn  was  in  a  monastery, 
to  which  belonged   a   Lama  who  was   constantly  riding 


240  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

about  on  a  pony,  engaged  in  matters  connected  with 
property.  I  saw  one  Lama  printing  a  book  of  prayers 
from  cut  blocks,  probably  brought  from  Peking.  The 
innkeeper  who  entertained  us  told  me  there  are  a  thousand 
Mongol  Lamas  and  two  thousand  Chinese  Lamas  and 
Hoshangs  in  Woo-tai.  We  saw  many  of  them  repeating 
prayers  nemoriter  with  beads  in  their  hands.  They 
appeared  to  have  the  outward  form  of  devotion.  But  our 
arrival  disturbed  their  equanimity  not  a  little.  In  a 
temple  where  there  are  about  a  hundred  Tibetans  we  saw 
two  of  the  same  nation  prostrating  themselves  with  zeal. 
Another  still  more  zealous  entered,  who,  not  content  with 
striking  his  forehead,  laid  his  whole  body  flat  on  the 
ground.  He  went  very  near  the  image  in  order  to  do 
this.  He  repeated  this  act  of  humility,  and  then  turned 
round  to  look  at  us  as  we  stood  at  a  side  door.  A  minute 
afterwards  he  came  across  the  hall  to  feel  our  clothins' 
with  a  smile  on  his  face.  While  feeling  the  foreign 
garments  with  his  fingers  he  still  continued  his  recitation 
of  prayers  or  charms.  We  were  surprised  at  the  little 
real  devotion  manifested  in  the  behaviour  of  this  out- 
wardly zealous  Lama. 

Woo-tai  is  a  favourite  place  for  burial.  On  the  hill- 
sides the  graves  are  exceedingly  numerous.  Cemeteries 
in  the  plain,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  monasteries,  are  also 
not  rare.  To  be  buried  in  so  sacred  a  spot  is  considered 
great  good  fortune.  The  Gegens  of  the  Yung-ho-kung 
monastery  in  Peking  are  brought  here  to  find  a  final 
resting-place.  White  tombs,  enclosing  an  urn  which 
contains  the  ashes  of  the  departed,  are  everywhere 
seen. 

Should  the  follower  of  Confucius  go  to  Woo-tai,  he  will 
find  his  favourite  sage  occupying  a  comparatively  insigni- 
ficant position.  In  the  temple  over  the  north  gate  of  Tai- 
hwai  there  is  an  image  of  the  great  sage.  It  is  very  small, 
and  stands  beside  a  larger  one  of  Wen-chang,  god  of  litera- 
ture.    On  the  south  side  is  Chen-woo,  who  is  a  legendary 


IMPERIAL  CONNECTION  WITH  WOO-TAI.      241 

protector  of  the  faithful  Taouist  from  pestilence  and  other 
calamities. 

The  jMiug  emperors  went  frequently  to  Woo-tai ;  the 
present  line  less  frequently.  But  Kanghe  interested  him- 
self greatly  in  this  seat  of  Buddhism.  The  imperial  lodge 
where  he  resided  is  still  there,  but  in  a  ruinous  state.  The 
description  of  Woo-tai  in  four  volumes,  which  he  caused 
to  be  written,  is  in  full  sympathy  with  Buddhism,  and 
says  not  a  syllable  in  condemnation  of  it.  The  object 
kept  in  view  in  maintaining  the  monasteries  is,  that 
prayers  may  be  offered  by  the  monks  for  the  prosperity 
of  the  Emperor  and  the  State. 


10 


(   242    ) 


CHAPTER   XIX. 

JOURNEY    FROM   WOO-TAI-SHAN   TO   PEKING   BY  WAY 
OF   TSZE-KING-KWAN. 

October  ^oth,  1872. — Eose  at  cockcrow  and  left  the  "  clear 
and  cool  Woo-tai."  Our  course  lay  by  the  north  valley 
and  up  the  winding  Hwa-yen-ling.  The  view  became 
very  fine  as  we  ascended.  Poo-sa-ting  kept  in  view  all  the 
way  up  to  the  top.  Prom  that  point  the  North  and  East 
Tai  may  be  easily  reached.  The  ascent  is  gradual,  and  is 
uniformly  over  a  brown  grassy  sod  all  the  way.  Much 
snow  was  lying  on  the  north  face  of  the  various  moun- 
tains. There  is  ice  there  which  does  not  melt  in  the 
hottest  summer  on  the  side  of  Chung-tai.  On  the  top 
above  it  is  a  white  pagoda.  On  Pei-tai  the  view  is  of 
overwhelming  grandeur,  as  Mr.  Gilmour  told  us,  who 
ascended  it  yesterday,  from  the  accumulation  of  peaks  of 
more  or  less  altitude  all  round.  Next  to  Heng-shan  the 
North  Tai  is  the  highest  peak  in  this  part  of  Shanse,  and 
in  fact  through  the  province.  Hence  the  large  number  of 
visible  peaks,  presenting  the  appearance  of  a  vast  waving 
sea  of  mountains,  which  impresses  the  observer  at  the  top 
of  the  North  Tai.  Like  it  in  grandeur  is  the  scene  from 
the  East  Tai,  where  at  sunrise  the  sea  can  be  seen  far 
away  on  the  east.  The  five  mountains  are  called  terraces 
because  they  are  flat  on  the  top.  According  to  the  theory 
of  Pumpelly  the  valleys  are  all  cut  out  gradually  by  the 
action  of  water  from  the  plateau,  which  anciently  extended 
far  to  the  southward  of  its  present  limits.  The  Chung- 
tai,  Pei-tai,  and  Tung-tai  are  linked  in  one;  and  perhaps 
also  the  Se-tai  and  Nan-tai.      The  only  deep  valley  is 


THE  WOO-TAI  MOUNTAINS.  243 

probably  that  by  which  we  entered  this  sacred  seat  of 
Buddhism. 

The  height  of  Woo-tai-shan  is  10,000  feet,  according  to 
Eichthoven.  The  monasteries  must  then  be  7000  or  8000 
feet.  The  same  traveller  says  that  oats  are  cultivated  to 
within  2000  feet  of  the  summit.  In  support  of  this 
estimate  it  should  be  remembered  that  snow  and  ice 
remain  near  the  top  of  the  mountain  on  the  north  side  all 
the  year  round.  It  seems  therefore  just  to  reach  the  snow- 
line. The  top  of  the  Pei-tai  is  a  flat  space  about  four  Ic 
square.  The  ascent  to  the  top  from  the  valley  of  the 
monasteries  is  forty  U  in  length.  The  lesser  Woo-tai-shan 
on  the  north-east  is  also  stated  to  be  10,000  feet  high.^ 

The  mass  of  mountains  called  Woo-tai-shan  are  five 
hundred  U  in  circuit.  The  Poo-to  river,  rising  at  Ta-ying 
and  winding  south  and  east  past  Woo-tai  city  into  the 
province  of  Chihle,  forms  their  west  and  south  boundary. 
On  the  north  the  Confucian  mountain,  Heng-shan,  over- 
tops them  in  altitude ;  on  the  east  the  Tai-hang  chain, 
marked  by  the  south  extension  of  the  Great  Wall,  forms 
the  natural  limit. 

The  north,  south,  east,  and  west  branches  are  all  con- 
nected with  the  Chung-tai  as  their  centre.  Such  is  the 
native  idea.  The  Nan-tai  is  the  most  beautiful,  having  a 
southern  slope,  which  nourishes  a  sufficient  number  of 
flowers  and  shrubs  to  lead  to  its  being  called  Kin-sieu- 
feng,  "  the  embroidered  mountain." 

The  top  of  the  Soutli  Nan-tai  is  a  U  in  circuit,  and 
convex  in  shape;  that  of  Tung-tai  is  three  h,  and 
that  of  Se-tai  two  h  in  circuit.  Perhaps  as  the  Chinese 
accounts  make  the  circuits  of  the  five  mountain  summits 
exactly  one,  two,  three,  four,  and  five  le,  they  are  open  to 
question.  Nature  does  not  shape  the  dimensions  of  her 
mountain-tops  quite  so  methodically  as  this. 

1  Mr.  William  Hancock  lately  asceiided  He  found  snow  congealed  into  ice  at 
this  mountain,  and  estimates  the  height  about  8000  feet  on  the  north  side  in 
to  be,  as  here  said,  about  10,000  feet,     autumn  weather. 


244  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

One  may  easily  imagine  an  enthusiastic  Buddhist  look- 
ing on  Woo-tai  with  pride  from  this  pass.  "  This,"  he 
would  say,  "  is  the  '  cool  and  clear  mountain,'  where  for 
nearly  two  thousand  years  our  monks  have  never  ceased 
to  recite  their  prayers.  It  is  one  of  the  three  most  note- 
worthy Buddhist  mountains.  But  neither  Ngo-mei  in 
Sze-chwen,  nor  Poo-to  in  the  Eastern  Ocean,  can  compare 
with  it  in  the  number  of  its  monasteries,  monks,  and 
pilgrims.  Here  emperors  order  prayers  to  be  made  for 
their  mothers  and  for  the  people.  Kanghe  himself  was 
a  frequent  pilgrim  at  these  shrines,  commemorating  his 
visits  by  monumental  inscriptions  at  the  chief  temples. 
It  is  a  fit  spot  for  the  professors  of  that  religion  which 
teaches  purity  of  conduct  and  mercy  to  all  living  beings, 
which  aims  at  ascetic  self-denial  and  encourages  sage 
meditation,  which  leads  men  to  virtue,  and  calls  them 
away  from  the  companionship  of  vice.  Well  may  those 
find  a  rest  here  who  struggle  after  a  pure  life,  far  from  the 
dusty  world,  where  care,  vice,  and  distraction  perpetually 
reign.  On  that  southern  eminence  our  Manjoosere  has 
on  many  occasions  specially  appeared,  in  the  hope  of 
persuading  men  to  almsgiving  and  benevolence,  to  a 
victory  over  the  animal  nature  by  the  monastic  life,  to 
the  patient  endurance  of  insults  and  wrong,  to  quiet  medi- 
tation and  lofty  aspirations  after  superhuman  wisdom." 

Kanghe,  when  he  visited  the  mountain,  thought  in  this 
way  about  it.  Though  a  Confucianist,  he  looked  com- 
placently on  this  nest  of  monasteries  high  up  among  the 
clouds.  Such  men  have  a  habit  of  believing  in  two  re- 
ligions at  once.     His  father  is  said  to  have  died  a  Buddhist. 

The  panegyric  on  the  ascetic  life  expressed  in  the  pre- 
ceding paragraph  is  all  extracted  from  his  edicts.  Yet 
neither  he  nor  his  father  ever  thought  seriously  of  becom- 
ing a  Hoshang  or  a  Lama,  or  of  retiring  like  Charles  V.  to 
some  monastery  as  a  refuge  in  old  age. 

When  the  Mongol  Lama  arrives  at  the  same  spot,  his 
feelings  will  perhaps  be  different.     By  the  sight  of  Woo- 


EXPECTA  TIONS  OF  PILGRIMS.  245 

tai  his  inind  is  (illed  with  indistinct  conceptions  of  the 
greatness  of  Borhan.  Woo-tai  is  a  chosen  seat  of  Borhan, 
and  therefore  he  must  prostrate  himself  when  at  last  he 
comes  in  sight  of  it.  This  he  will  do  amid  the  wide  scene 
of  mountain  ranges  which  meet  the  eye,  while  the  north 
wind  blows  cold  on  his  back.  He  wall  prostrate  himself 
before  the  sacred  valley  as  a  holy  place,  to  see  which  is 
both  a  great  happiness  and  a  great  merit.  To  him,  as  to 
the  Mongol  laity,  Borhan  is  the  possessor  of  boundless 
power  and  mercy.  If  he  be  religiously  disposed,  he  goes 
to  Woo-tai  as  to  a  spot  where,  by  tlie  fulfilment  of  vows, 
the  offering  of  gifts,  and  the  reciting  of  prayers  and  charms, 
he  may  obtain  any  desired  form  of  happiness. 

And  what  do  those  Mongol  women  expect  as  the  result 
of  their  pilgrimage  ?  You  meet  them  in  tlie  bazaar  traf- 
ficking with  the  bazaar-keepers,  going  the  round  of  the 
temples  to  worship,  pushing  the  praying  wheels,  or  mounted 
on  camels  on  their  way  home.  They  must  each  have  an 
object.  Probably  it  is  some  special  matter,  some  trouble 
of  their  own,  from  which  the  mighty  Borhan  will  free 
them  for  the  asking,  or  it  is  an  impulse  which  leads  them 
to  make  this  journey  with  an  indefinite  notion  that  it  will 
be  good  for  them,  or  it  is  doing  as  others  do,  in  accordance 
with  a  custom  which  to  them  has  the  obligation  of  a  law, 
or  it  is  a  wish  to  visit  a  mountain  where  Buddha  has  made 
every  inch  of  ground  sacred  by  his  presence,  where  the 
images,  the  priests,  the  worship,  the  temples,  the  tombs, 
are  all  more  holy  than  elsewhere. 

As  we  went  down  the  pass  in  order  to  strike  the  plain  of 
the  Poo-to  river,  we  saw  Heng-shan  on  the  north-west,  a 
mountain  very  striking  for  its  lofty  horizontal  line.  To 
judge  from  its  appearance,  as  we  saw  it,  it  might  have  a 
very  broad  flat  surface  at  the  top.  The  shepherds  whom 
we  met  said  it  was  higher  than  Woo-tai.  Annual  worship 
is  offered  here  by  officer^  whom  the  Emperor  deputes  to 
keep  up  an  old  practice.  The  worship  of  mountains  was 
an  element  in  the  ancient  Persian  religion  before  the  in- 


246  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

trodiiction  of  the  Magian  system,  and  it  is  described  in 
Herodotus. 

Our  course  was  down  a  rapid  descent.  In  the  evening 
we  were  at  the  bottom,  sixty  U  from  Woo-tai,  and  just  on 
the  edge  of  the  plain,  at  a  village  called  Tung-shan-te, 
"  foot  of  the  east  hill."  Here  we  were  two  hundred  and 
forty  U  (eighty  miles)  from  Tai-tung  and  forty  from  the 
town  called  Ta-ying.  Both  are  to  the  north.  Wolves  are 
spoken  of  as  being  very  fierce  here  ;  two  or  three  persons 
in  the  village  are  said  to  have  been  not  long  since  bitten 
by  them.  Wheat  begins  to  be  grown  a  little  way  out  on 
the  plain.     The  plain  here  is  in  fact  a  broad  valley. 

Thursday,  October  315^. — This  morning  we  left  our  quar- 
ters at  six,  and  crossed  the  plain  in  a  north-easterly 
direction  to  Ta-ying.  A  great  road  passes  down  it  lead- 
ing to  Tai-chow  and  other  cities,  and  bearing  south-west. 
The  river  which  runs  through  this  valley  is  the  Poo-to, 
which  rises  near  Ta-ying  and  pursues  its  windings  by 
Tai-chow  to  the  south-west,  afterwards  bending  round  to 
the  south-east  and  entering  the  province  of  Chihle  near 
Chen-ting-foo. 

The  loess  formation  here  begins  again,  and  occurs  across 
the  valley,  forming  hills  which  stand  isolated,  and  also 
clothing  the  hollows  of  the  mountains  at  their  base. 

Being  on  a  great  road,  we  met  many  muleteers  bringing 
loads  from  Peking.  Some  Imew  our  muleteers  and  greeted 
them.  One  as  a  mark  of  friendship  gave  my  driver  two 
newly-baked  cakes,  which,  without  a  word  of  needless 
comment,  were  duly  accepted  and  enjoyed. 

At  Ta-ying  it  was  market-day.  A  crowd  of  people 
pressed  into  our  inn.  As  soon  as  we  had  arrived,  a  mili- 
tary officer  from  Ping-hing-kwan  heard  of  us,  and  came  to 
our  inn  to  see  who  we  were.  I  went  out  to  meet  him.  A 
rather  stern  man  on  a  horse  stood  in  the  inn-yard  sur- 
rounded by  the  crowd  and  his  underlings.  After  the  first 
questions,  I  asked  him  for  protection  from  the  crowd,  that 
would  not  allow  us  leisure  to  have  our  breakfast.     He  said 


SELLING  CHRISTIAN  BOOKS.  247 

it  was  natural  tliat  the  crowd  in  a  new  place  sliould  wish 
to  see  us.  He  would  himself  like  to  look  at  any  ping-hu  ^ 
we  might  have  with  us.  He  referred  to  our  passports, 
which  would  be  proof  of  our  right  to  be  here,  I  produced 
mine,  which  he  read  on  his  horse  and  returned  to  me.  I 
said  my  two  companions  also  had  similar  documents.  He 
replied  that  one  was  enough  for  him  to  inspect ;  he  had 
while  riding  past  just  come  in  to  see  who  we  were.  Here 
the  catechist  began  to  speak,  when  he  said,  "  Oh,  it  is  you 
that  have  brought  these  people  here."  This  he  said  in  a 
not  very  agi'eeable  tone.  I  therefore  called  to  the  catechist 
that  he  should  bring  some  books  to  give  to  the  officer; 
they  were  graciously  accepted,  and  given  to  a  follower  to 
carry.  The  officer  then  turned  his  horse  towards  the  inn 
gate,  and  ordered  his  attendants  to  drive  all  the  intruders 
out  of  the  yard.  On  his  leaving  immediately  after,  it 
might  have  been  supposed  that  the  attendants  would  make 
some  attempt  to  expel  the  crowd ;  but  nothing  was  fur- 
ther from  their  ideas ;  they  made  no  effort  of  the  kind. 
The  burden  of  controlling  the  crowd  must  fall  on  us,  and 
we  adopted  the  simple  plan  of  selling  books.  We  were 
too  crowded  in  the  inn.  It  was  necessary  for  us  to  go  into 
the  street,  each  with  a  pile  of  books,  to  draw  away  a  part  of 
the  idle  onlookers.  The  innkeeper  and  his  satellites  would 
then  be  able  to  prosecute  tlieir  duties.  In  the  street  sell- 
ing the  books  was  preferable  to  giving,  because  the  crowd 
was  thus  prevented  from  disorderly  snatching.  At  a  market 
or  a  fair  it  is  essential  to  sell  our  Christian  books  if  we 
would  secure  order. 

Wlien  you  meet  a  small  knot  of  Chinese  alone,  they 
will  not,  as  a  rule,  buy  books,  Ijut  they  will  take  them 
thankfully  if  given.  In  a  crowd,  however,  the  laws  of  the 
human  mind  make  a  man  willing  to  part  with  a  sum  of 
money  for  his  book.  He  is  excited.  One  man  excites 
another.  Example  is  infectious.  If  a  man  sees  one  buy 
he  wishes  also  to  buy.     The  Chinese  become  different  in  a 

1  Both  words  mean  " hold  in  the  hand ; "  hence  "evidence,"  "proof." 


248  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

crowd  to  what  they  are  when  alone ;  they  become  eager 
to  buy  what  in  other  circumstances  they  would  not  care 
for — in  very  many  cases  I  saw  them  borrowing  money 
rather  than  not  buy.  The  excitement  is  too  great  for 
them. 

A  Buddhist  priest  carefully  examined  a  copy  of  Mark's 
Gospel.  He  thought  much  of  it  and  decided  to  buy. 
Having  no  money,  he  went  to  a  shop  to  borrow  some. 
Coming  back,  he  noticed  that  Acts  was  thicker  than  Mark, 
and  wished  to  exchange.  Although  his  money  was  two 
cash  short,  he  was  allowed  on  the  ground  of  benefit  of 
clergy. 

Another,  after  buying  Luke,  notices  that  it  is  labelled 
volume  tliree.  He  wishes  to  change  it  for  a  Testament,  as 
being  a  complete  book,  but  is  anxious  not  to  pay  more 
money.  The  unreasonableness  of  this  is  pointed  out  to 
him.  He  presses  the  exchange  on  the  ground  that  Luke 
is  imperfect.  At  last  he  brings  the  extra  money  and  re- 
ceives the  Testament. 

One  poor  man  with  a  sickly-looking  face  came  to  ask 
for  medicine  to  cure  him  of  opium.  He  was  told  that  we 
had  none,  but  here  was  a  book  exhorting  the  victims  of 
opium  to  abandon  the  habit,  and  containing  a  good  recipe. 
"That,"  said  he,  "is  the  book  I  want."  Others,  hearing 
that  this  book  is  for  sale  for  four  small  coins,  seize  it  with 
avidity  and  carry  it  away  exulting.  The  misery  produced 
by  opium  is  a  lasting  and  everywhere  present  evil.  Much 
opium  is  grown  on  the  hills  in  this  part  of  Shanse. 

We  came  on  in  the  afternoon  thirty  more  U  to  Ping- 
hing-kwan,  a  pass  in  the  inner  Great  Wall.  We  first 
came  to  a  fort.  It  is  on  a  loess  hill  with  large  fissures  in  it 
seventy  or  eighty  feet  deep.  Some  of  the  party  went  up 
the  hill,  and  others  proceeded  by  a  path  at  the  bottom  of 
one  of  the  fissures ;  consequently  they  speedily  became 
separated  by  a  considerable  difference  in  altitude.  We 
were  for  some  time  in  a  difficulty  to  find  each  other.  One 
calamity  will  soon  follow  another.     The  petty  officers  of  a 


THE  LOESS  FORMATION.  249 

hiun-kic,  u  military  mandarin^  came  forward  to  insist  that 
the  mules  and  their  riders  should  all  go  to  the  yamcn  of 
their  superior  for  examination.  This  was  declined,  and  an 
answer  was  given  that  it  was  necessary  for  us  first  to  go  to 
an  inn.  In  half  an  hour  we  met  again  at  an  inn  outside  of 
the  north  gate  of  the  fort.  The  mandarin  underlings  did 
not  again  appear. 

Friday,  November  ist. — Starting  before  daylight,  we  left 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  fort,  and  ascended  the  pass  above 
us  to  the  Great  "Wall.  The  wall  is  here  very  dilapidated, 
and  a  mere  frame  of  thin  spars  serves  for  a  gate.  A  few 
rods  of  wall  on  the  east  side  were  ready  to  sink  on  occa- 
sion of  the  next  rainfall.  A  decayed  tower  on  one  or  two 
of  the  neighbouring  heights  indicated  how  Kttle  of  the 
work  of  Tsin-shi-hwang  now  remains.  The  wall  maintains 
a  decent  appearance  only  where  it  has  been  placed  in  repair 
within  a  few  centuries,  as  on  the  roads  leading  from  Mon- 
goha  to  Peking.  Yet  the  Ping-hing-kwan  might  be  well 
protected,  for  on  the  north  side  of  it  we  came  down  a  valley 
in  the  loess  formation  eight  or  ten  miles  in  length,  and  in 
many  parts  the  road  is  very  narrow  and  flanked  by  deep 
fissures.  These  fissures  would  form  a  perfect  bar  to  the 
progress  of  invaders  if  the  road  were  fortified.  They  are 
evidently  made  by  water  loosening  the  loess,  which  then 
falls  in  avalanclies.  In  one  place  a  broad  gorge  is  crossed 
by  a  bridge  which  rests  on  a  thin  wall  of  friable  soil 
five  or  six  feet  thick.  Below  is  an  arched  water-way  for 
the  water  of  the  fissure  to  escape  by.  Thirty  feet  above 
this  arch  is  the  road  along  the  narrow  wall.  It  is 
strengthened  with  stones  above,  but  a  part  is  cracked,  and 
unless  soon  repaired,  only  three  or  four  feet  in  the  width  of 
the  road  will  be  left. 

In  many  parts  the  road  winds  round  the  edge  of  a 
precipice  at  the  end  of  one  of  the  fissures.  The  action  of 
water  perpetually  tends  to  lengthen  the  fissure.  Damp 
rises  from  the  bottom  and  rain  falls  on  the  top ;  the 
whole  structure  is  disturbed,  and  a  new  piece  of  the  loess 


250  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

falls.  Then  the  road  is  broken  in  upon,  and  the  people 
widen  it  on  the  other  side  by  cutting  away  a  new  portion 
of  the  loess.  The  windings  of  the  road,  like  those  of  a 
river,  are  in  this  way  constantly  growing  larger.  The 
sight  from  the  fissure's  top  will  shake  weak  nerves.  You 
look  down  sixty,  eighty,  or  a  hundred  feet  of  perpendicular 
depth.  The  loess  is  usually  a  fine  mould,  uniform  in  texture 
and  very  light,  but  occasionally  strata  of  gravel  occur,  and 
also  calcareous  nodules.  The  gravel  would  come  by  water 
action  during  the  time  of  deposition  of  the  loess.  The 
loess  rests  on  various  kinds  of  rocks,  as  if  blown  on  them 
after  they  had  assumed  their  present  position. 

We  are  now  on  a  higher  country  than  yesterday.  Our 
position  is  at  the  back  of  the  ridge  we  crossed  at  Ping- 
hing-kwan.  No  wheat  grows  here.  Oats,  kait-liang,  and 
black  beans  are  the  common  produce  of  the  soil.  The  land- 
tax  is  three  fen  per  mo7.o,  or  about  tenjDence  an  acre. 

At  mid-day  we  had  to  brave  the  pressure  of  another 
crowd,  violently  anxious  to  see  the  strangers  feed.  It  was 
a  market-day.  The  place  was  named  Tung-ho-nan,  "  the 
Eastern  Honan"  (lionan,  "south  of  river").  We  took 
advantage  of  the  presence  of  the  crowd  to  sell  a  few 
books. 

In  the  afternoon  we  came  eastward  along  a  beautiful 
valley  to  the  city  of  Ling-kiow,  which  we  reached  after 
travelling  thirteen  miles.  The  valley  was  evidently  an 
old  lake,  the  waters  of  which  found  their  exit  at  the 
south-east  corner.  On  each  side  are  loess  terraces  of 
moderate  height,  and  beyond  them  rocky  hills.  It  is 
the  valley  of  the  Tang-ho,  the  same  river  we  crossed  at 
Tang-hien,  near  Pau-ting-foo.  In  many  parts  the  valley 
is  left  for  pasture.  We  saw  feeding  there  goats,  sheep, 
oxen,  donkeys,  horses,  and  pigs,  all  in  harmony. 

Saturday,  Novemher  2d. — This  morning  we  left  at  six 
A.M.  the  valley  of  Ling-kiow,  where  yesterday  afternoon 
we  sold  a  large  number  of  books.  Our  road  lay  over 
the  Yun-tsai-ling,  "pass  of  many-coloured  clouds."     The 


STATE  OF  AGRICULTURE  AND  WAGES.        251 

rock  is  limestone,  which  tends  to  form  the  most  picturesque 
perpendicular  crags  and  summit  pinnacles,  chiselled  out,  as 
local  legend  would  say,  by  the  hand  of  some  giant  or 
fairy,  but  in  fact  by  the  dissolving  power  of  rain-water, 
continued  through  unnumbered  years.  The  limestone  is 
worked  two  miles  away  from  the  road.  Though  so  late  in 
the  year,  we  noticed  one  blue  flower  among  the  abundant 
grasses. 

No  small  amount  of  traffic  goes  over  this  pass  towards 
Kwang-chang.  We  were  now  not  far  to  the  north  of 
Tau-ma-kwan,  a  pass  by  which  the  Tang  river,  whose 
name  remains  from  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Yau,  B.C. 
2500,  flows  into  the  great  j)lain  of  Chihle. 

Reached  Chau-pai  at  the  breakfast  hour.  Poverty  marks 
the  appearance  of  the  people.  Prices  are  as  follows : — 
Wages,  60  copper  cash  ^  per  day  and  three  meals ;  cotton 
cloth,  40  cash  per  foot ;  unspuu  cotton,  250  cash  per  catty; 
oatmeal,  30  cash  per  catty;  wheat  flour,  60  cash;  suit  of 
clothes,  including  hat,  shoes,  and  hose,  4000  cash,  or  one 
pound  of  English  money  nearly.  The  tax  on  land  pro- 
duce is  440  cash  for  oats,  370  for  tall  millet,  280  for  buck- 
wheat. Miscellaneous  products  are  140.  Fuel,  moun- 
tain brushwood,  dry  straw,  and  grass  can  be  had  for  the 
gathering.  No  potatoes  or  wheat  are  grown  here.  There 
are  cabbages  and  melons.  In  Peking  a  labourer  gets  from 
one  to  two  pounds  a  month,  if  not  found  in  food.  In 
England  a  labourer  possesses  many  comforts  which  the 
Chinese  workman  cannot  afford. 

In  the  afternoon  we  crossed  another  mountain  pass,  Yi- 
ma-ling,  or  "  horse-stage  pass,"  to  Ai-ho,  "  Artemisia  river." 
The  rock  was  limestone  throughout,  and  there  was  the 
same  appearance  of  cathedral-like  architecture  in  the  erect 
precipices,  very  various  in  colour  and  appearance,  beside 
which  the  road  wound.  On  the  western  ascent  the  valley 
was  covered  with  minute  stones  for  several  miles.     These 

1  At  present  1700  cash  are  exchanged    taels  go  to  an  English  pound.     A  cutty 
for  a  tael  of  silver,  and  nearly  four    is  a  pound  and  one-third  in  weight. 


252  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

are  all  fragmeuts  of  limestoue  rock  reduced  to  a  small 
size  by  water  action.  In  parts  large  boulders  occurred. 
On  the  east  side  of  the  pass  there  were  traces  of  iron  in 
red  sand  and  red-coloured  limestone.  A  red  hill  south  of 
the  pass  seemed  to  be  the  spot  where  the  iron  might  be 
found.  The  road  was  cut  through  some  strata  of  mould 
and  gxavel  which  seemed  to  have  been  gathered  —  the 
mould  from  loess  hills  not  far  off,  and  the  gravel  from  the 
rocks  above  the  deposit. 

The  Chinese  never  fail  to  erect  temples  in  passes ;  they 
are  intended  to  protect  travellers  from  evil  influences, 
robbers,  and  attacks  from  wild  animals.  I  entered  a 
temple  dedicated  to  Lau-kiun,  founder  of  Taouism.  On 
the  walls  were  painted  twenty-five  metamorphoses  of  this 
personage,  consisting  of  scenes  in  his  life,  of  course  chiefly 
imaginary. 

Sunday,  November  ^d. — Came  last  night  to  a  village 
where  we  are  perched  on  one  of  the  undulations  of  the 
loess  formation.  In  front  of  us  is  a  little  river  and  a  wide 
reach  of  cultivated  land  to  the  south.  It  is  a  branch  of 
the  valley  of  the  river  called  Ku-ma-ho,  along  which  we 
are  now  to  travel  eastward  to  Tsze-ldng-kwan.  The  situa- 
tion of  the  village  is  picturesque.  Brooks  of  pure  water 
irrigate  the  region  for  several  months  in  the  year.  In 
summer,  say  the  people,  these  rivulets  dry  up,  and  they 
are  gTeat  sufferers  from  drought.  They  are  then  obliged 
to  draw  water  from  very  wide  and  deep  wells.  There  is 
no  goitre  here,  probably  because  the  country  is  both  high 
and  open. 

The  fields  are  aU  ploughed  in  November  to  be  in  readi- 
ness for  the  millet,  which  is  sown  in  spring.  The  country 
is  too  high  for  wheat.  Winnowing  and  threshing  are  pro- 
ceeding vigorously.  The  people  use  a  flail  whose  flying 
piece,  of  strong,  flat  basket  work,  is  two  feet  by  five  inches 
in  size. 

Visited  a  village  a  mile  to  the  eastward.  Went  into  a 
temple  of  Kwan-te,  god  of  war.     The  pictures  on  the  walls 


PICTURES  OF  KWAN-TE.  253 

were  scenes  from  the  "  Komance  of  the  Tliree  Kingdoms," 
A.D.  200,  the  time  when  Kwan-te,  god  of  war,  flourished. 
This  hero  was  strong  enough,  and  had  sufficient  energy 
and  martial  fire,  to  take  a  man's  head  off  as  he  sat  on  his 
horse.  In  one  case  the  body  of  one  of  his  enemies  re- 
mained (so  the  painter  represented  it)  sitting  on  the  horse 
when  the  head  was  on  the  ground  at  the  feet  of  Kwan-te's 
steed.  Tlie  conventional  face  of  Kwan-te  is  very  red  and 
very  decided,  honest,  and  brave.  The  eyes  are  long,  narrow, 
and  much  deflected. 

In  answer  to  an  inquiry  if  they  smoked  opium,  the 
people  who  pressed  into  the  temple  said  they  did  not. 
They  were  then  reminded  that  although  they  did  not 
smoke  opium,  this  temple  was  a  witness  that  they  had  a 
fault  of  another  kind.  They  forgot  God  who  gave  them 
the  ploughing  ox,  the  millet,  the  land,  and  the  homes  and 
families  which  made  them  happy. 

Our  sleeping  and  living  room  at  this  village  was  not 
good.  It  was  used  as  a  barn  and  a  storing  house  for 
mules'  loads  in  wet  weather.  There  was  a  large  Icang  at 
one  end  which  we  occupied. 

Not  finding  wheat,  flour,  or  mutton,  we  regaled  ourselves 
with  white  rice  and  sardines  which  had  come  in  the 
baggage  of  some  of  our  party.  In  these  regions  oatmeal 
is  the  staple  of  the  people,  and  animal  food  is  a  rarity 
which  the  poor  never  see  except  at  a  wedding,  a  funeral, 
at  the  New  Year,  or  at  the  feasts  in  the  fifth  and  eight 
months. 

Monday,  November  afli,  1872. — Leaving  Ai-ho  in  the 
dark,  we  continued  our  home  journey  partly  on  the  river 
bed  and  partly  through  roads  in  the  loess  to  Kwang-chang. 
Here  I  filled  a  small  bottle  with  a  specimen  of  loess  to 
carry  home  for  analysis.  Kwang-chang  is  less  important 
than  Ling-chiow,  but  is  in  a  valley  of  remarkably  fine 
scenery.     Limestone  continues  to  be  the  prevailing  rock. 

The  road  from  Yu-chow  to  Pau-ting  passes  by  this  city. 
Our  course  lay  on  the  south  side  through  an  extensive 


254  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

suburb.  Here  I  noticed  a  large  wooden  tablet  over  the 
door  of  a  retired  mandarin,  sixty  years  of  age.  It  was 
presented  to  him  by  Wo-jen  and  Kia-cheng,  two  chief 
secretaries  at  court.  He  had  long  served  the  Government 
in  conjunction  with  these  well-known  ofi&cers  of  State,  and 
this  was  the  way  in  which  they  had  shown  their  friend- 
ship and  respect.  His  office  was  a  tai-chau  of  the  Han- 
lin-yuen.  In  Peking  such  a  testimonial  of  regard  would 
probably  have  been  placed  in  the  house  of  the  person  so 
honoured,  and  its  position  would  be  in  the  centre  of  the 
visitor's  hall,  under  the  roof  facing  the  south.  In  these 
parts,  as  at  Siuen-hwa-foo,  it  is  the  fashion  to  place  them 
outside  of  the  house,  over  the  door  facing  the  street — a 
position  preferred  in  Peking  by  physicians  for  exhibiting 
monumental  tablets  presented  by  grateful  patients. 

A  little  farther  I  noticed  an  advertisement  issued  by  a 
Buddhist  priest,  stating  that  his  temple  needing  repairs,  it 
was  his  duty  to  solicit  donations.  The  work  of  restoration 
was  now  complete,  and  the  announcement  was  hereby 
made  of  the  re-opening  of  the  temple  on  certain  days,  three 
in  number,  on  which  occasion  he  respectfully  invited  con- 
tributors and  others  to  be  present.  Those  who  had  not 
already  given  were  urged  to  do  so  on  the  ground  that 
money  should  in  itself  be  despised,  and  that  great  happi- 
ness would  be  secured  by  giving,  or,  as  he  expressed  it, 
they  should  give  that  they  might  enlarge  the  field  of  their 
happiness,  yi  kicang  foo  tien.  The  dedication  is  called 
hai-kwang,  "  open  light,"  a  phrase  which  refers  to  the  open- 
ing of  the  eyes  of  the  image. 

Outside  of  the  town  on  the  east  was  a  Tung-yo-miau,  or 
"  temple  to  the  spirit  of  the  eastern  mountain,"  i.e.,  Tai- 
shan  in  Shantung.     Beside  it  stands  a  pagoda  of  five  stories. 

Passing  down  the  valley,  our  mules  crossed  the  river 
Ku-ma-ho,  at  first  by  wading;  then,  when  the  river 
became  deeper,  the  mules  crossed  by  bridges.  The  valley 
became  narrow,  and  its  scenery,  as  the  sun  shone  through  a 
mist,  was  very  fine.     The  white  spray  of  the  rushing  river 


TOWERS  FOR  ARCHERS.  255 

shone  upon  by  the  sunlight  was  in  lovely  contrast  to  the 
dark  waters  beneath.  The  limestone  cliffs  cast  a  deep 
shadow.  Above  them  were  the  towers  of  the  inner  Great 
Wall  appearing  at  frequent  intervals.  Beneath  flows  the 
river,  threading  its  way  through  a  wide  dry  strand,  over- 
spread with  white  and  blue  pebbles  of  limestone,  large  and 
small.  Over  them,  once  in  every  few  years,  comes  down 
with  overwhelming  force  a  torrent  from  the  mountains, 
which  brings  a  new  supply  of  stones,  pebbles,  and  sand, 
wliich  disturb  all  marks,  obliterate  all  paths,  and  per- 
manently raze  the  old  bed. 

We  breakfasted  at  Foo-too-yu.  The  road  from  Yu-chow 
to  Pau-ting-foo  goes  this  way  to  the  southward.  Our  course 
is  east.  Thirty  towers  are  seen  here,  all  belonging  to  the 
Great  Wall.  They  are  on  both  sides  of  the  river,  and 
would  form  a  convenient  refuge  for  soldiers  armed  with 
bow  and  arrow,  but  would  be  of  no  use  in  modern  warfare. 
One  of  my  fellow-travellers  and  I  mounted  one  of  these 
towers  by  holes  in  the  bricks.  They  are  intended  to  be 
ascended  by  ladders.  The  tower  is  built  with  three  arched 
passages  from  east  to  west;  there  are  four  arched  win- 
dows on  the  east  and  west  sides,  and  three  on  the  north 
and  south.  Upwards  of  twenty  arches,  large  and  small, 
meet  the  eye  on  entering.  The  structure  is  square,  com- 
pact, and  strong.  Below  there  are  four  tiers  of  hewn 
granite  stones ;  above  large  bricks  are  used.  The  top  is 
castellated.  We  ascended  and  found  there  a  brick  plat- 
form twenty  feet  from  the  ground  and  surrounded  by  a 
castellated  parapet.  An  inscription  of  the  Ming  dynasty 
let  into  the  wall  stated  that  the  erection  of  the  tower  was 
completed  in  the  fourth  year  of  Wan-leih,  a.d.  1576,  and 
is  tlierefore  three  centuries  old.  Any  such  towers  in  the 
Great  Wall  near  Peking  may  therefore  be  ascribed  to  the 
Ming  dynasty  with  safety.  It  is  not  necessary  to  suppose 
that  these  square  strong -looking  structures  have  lasted 
through  the  summer  rains  and  winter  winds  and  snow- 
storms  of  two   thousand   years.      Two   great   periods   of 


256  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

rebuilding  and  fortifying  the  more  important  forts  and  the 
more  important  portions  of  the  wall  have  occurred,  each 
after  a  Tartar  dynasty.  The  Sui  dynasty,  following  the 
Northern  Wei,  a  Turkish  race  in  the  sixth  century,  thought 
it  well  to  fortify  the  boundaries  of  the  Empire  on  its  north 
side.  So  the  Ming  also,  after  expelling  the  Mongols,  deter- 
mined to  produce  an  impression  on  the  Tartar  hordes  by 
the  same  appearance  of  an  impassable  barrier. 

These  towers  are  erected  at  each  end  of  the  plank  bridge 
by  which  the  Ku-ma  is  here  crossed,  and  are  also  seen 
crowning  the  crags  east  and  west  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reacli. 

From  Foo-too-yu  we  proceeded  towards  "Iron  Pass" 
(Tie-ling),  the  road  over  which  was  repaired  thirty  years 
ago.  The  officer  who  superintended  the  work  has  erected  a 
monument  in  commemoration  of  it;  its  date  is  1835.  In 
crossing  this  pass  we  also  proceeded  through  a  broad  loess 
formation.  We  then  came  to  the  banks  of  the  Ku-ma 
and  followed  it  all  the  way  to  Tsze-king-kwan.  This  river 
is  crossed  in  several  places  by  bridges  so  constructed  as  to 
be  movable  at  pleasure.  Shrubs,  twigs,  bean  stubble,  fresh 
branches,  and  straw  are  laid  across  prostrate  trunks  of 
trees,  which  rest  on  inclined  posts  struck  as  piles  into  the 
river  bottom.  All  are  removed  when  the  summer  rains 
are  approaching,  for  fear  of  their  being  carried  away. 
Land-tax  in  this  neighbourhood  is  eight  or  nine  tow  of  the 
produce  per  mow;  in  bad  years  it  is  reduced  to  three  or 
four  tow}  In  the  evening  we  stayed  at  Ta-yai-yu,  "  pass 
of  the  pagoda  cliff."  We  passed  the  night  in  a  partly 
ruined  building.  The  large  gaps  made  by  bad  weather 
coming  from  the  north  were  partially  covered  by  some 
rush  mats.  It  rained  during  the  night.  Venturing  out  in 
the  dark  was  found  to  be  dangerous  by  one  of  our  party, 
who  slipped  on  some  soft  mud  and  Idssed  his  mother  earth. 

Among  our  visitors  in  the  evening  were  some  men  who 
had  heard  of  the  visit  of  the  Eev.  W.  C.  Burns  to  a  town  in 
this  neighbourhood,  Pan-pi-tien,  several  years  ago,  and  had 

^  A  tow  is  ten  pints.     This  amounts  to  sixty  pints  per  acre. 


THE  GREAT  WALL.  257 

seen  books  which  he  distributed  at  that  time.  This  was 
an  interesting  reminiscence  of  a  man  whose  example  of 
devotion  and  self-denial  was  of  the  highest  type. 

Novcmhcr  ^th. — Left  late  on  account  of  the  rain.  Here 
and  there  we  met  laden  mules.  Some  carried  wine,  others 
cotton,  or  bags  of  sugar,  or  drugs,  or  pine  wood,  or  cloth. 
We  also  saw  many  herds  of  sheep  and  goats  feeding. 
Their  bleat  often  reached  the  ear  from  far  away,  mingling 
with  the  jingle  of  the  mules'  bells.  One  pedestrian  had 
gone  to  Kwang-chang  to  sell  some  merchandise,  and  was 
now  returning  with  his  yoke  over  his  shoulder  to  his  home 
at  Yu-chow.  Another  having  a  heavy  pack  on  his  shoulder 
sat  on  a  stone  on  the  roadside  immediately  in  front  of 
another  stone,  against  which  he  supported  the  pack  while 
he  rested  himself. 

We  now  saw  the  last  of  the  Great  Wall.  In  many 
places  it  had  dwindled  to  a  mere  heap  of  unhewn  stones. 
But  at  Tsze-king-kwan  we  saw  it  in  its  best  condition.  As 
we  approached,  it  became  a  very  conspicuous  object,  mount- 
ing lofty  heights,  and  presenting  everywhere  a  castellated 
appearance.  It  is  here  built  carefully  with  stone  below 
and  bricks  above.  Tsze-king-kwan  is  imposing.  Inscrip- 
tions of  the  reio'n  of  Wan-leih  abound.  Several  times 
hostile  armies  have  come  into  Chihle  by  this  route.  It  is 
much  easier  than  that  of  Nan-kow.  No  vast  beds  of 
boulders  like  those  at  Ku-yung-kwan  have  here  to  be 
crossed.  Great  exertions  have  been  made  therefore  to 
fortify  it.  In  one  inscription  over  the  north  gate  of  the 
fort  it  is  called  King  nan  te  ye  Mung  kwan,  "the  first 
strong  pass  south  of  the  capital."  There  are  more  than 
two  hundred  families  in  the  fort.  The  walls  and  gates  are 
strong  and  lofty.  Customs  officers  are  posted  here,  who 
were  somewhat  troublesome.  They  demanded  transit 
duty.  This  we  declined,  on  the  ground  that  we  were  not 
merchants,  but  foreigners  travelling  with  passports  and 
without  goods.     After  loudly  vociferating  for  ten  minutes 

that  we  must  pay,  they  let  us  alone, 

10  R 


258  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

On  the  south  side  of  the  fortress  we  found  ourselves  at 
the  top  of  a  rapidly  descending  mountain  road  leading- 
through  a  most  beautiful  valley  ornamented  among  other 
things  with  persimmon  trees.  These  Avith  their  bright  red 
fruit  constitute  a  lovely  feature  in  October  both  here  and 
in  North  China  generally,  especially  in  hilly  regions.  The 
trees  are  larger,  some  of  them,  than  the  largest  apple  and 
pear  trees,  being  thirty  or  forty  feet  high.  There  is  a 
strong  astringent  element  in  the  fruit  when  young.  When 
quite  soft  and  ripe,  the  astringent  flavour  deserts  the  pulp 
but  remains  in  the  rind.  The  persimmon  is  preserved  dry 
by  the  Chinese,  and  in  this  form  lasts  till  spring.  The 
leaves  fall  before  the  fruit,  and  the  trees  we  saw  were  at 
the  time  nearly  bare  of  them. 

We  stopped  for  refreshment  at  a  small  inn  on  the  road- 
side, and  enjoyed  the  view  of  the  valley,  richly  coloured 
with  autumn  leaves,  filling  the  eye  with  beauty  before  they 
fall  to  the  earth  and  become  again  a  part  of  that  soil  from 
which  they  were  formed. 

We  descended  fast  from  this  spot,  and  took  notice  of  the 
rapid  change  in  level  from  Tsze-king-kwan  to  the  Yu-chow 
plains.  There  we  were  fifteen  hundred  feet  higher  than 
the  plain,  and  yet  we  were  apparently  on  a  level  with  the 
Kwang-chang  valley.  Eichthoven  went  this  way  to  Woo- 
tai,  and  doubtless  the  rapid  elevation  of  level  he  here 
witnessed  formed  a  large  part  of  the  elevation  he  assigns  to 
Woo-tai-shan.  A  little  river  followed  the  road  for  some 
miles.  The  valley  is  bounded  by  lofty  heights,  among 
which  many  limestone  crags  are  seen  deeply  indented  by 
the  rain-storms  of  bygone  ages.  My  muleteer  pointed  to 
one  of  these  limestone  mountains,  and  with  some  enthusi- 
asm said,  Che  shan  shi  tsai  chang  ti  yeu  ya,  "  This  mountain 
has  certainly  grown  into  a  very  rare  and  elegant  form." 
But  his  attention  was  at  once  recalled  from  the  poetry  of 
nature  to  certain  perverse  exhibitions  of  temper  on  the 
part  of  one  of  his  animals,  which  made  it  necessary  for 
him  to  crack  his  loud  whip,  and  urge  him  on  by  words 


A  RAGGED  POPULATION.  259 

which  the  animal  seemed  to  understand.  At  tlie  bridges 
the  river  is  thirty  yards  wide.  Here  and  there  it  is  diver- 
sified by  faded  green  willows.  Wheat  and  cotton  now 
begin  to  appear.  In  the  upper  valley  of  the  Ku-ma  these 
crops  are  unknown.  The  field  for  the  botanist  seems  ex- 
tensive in  the  valley  which  we  traversed  this  afternoon. 
A  great  variety  of  trees  and  plants  grow  there.  The 
acacias  which  overshadowed  our  inn  and  the  temple  near 
it  were  very  fine  specimens  of  their  kind.  Over  the 
valley  were  various  other  trees  shining  in  their  autumn 
beauty. 

The  people  begin  to  look  better  dressed.  In  some  of  the 
mountain  districts  the  clothing  of  many  of  them  is  insuffi- 
cient. A  young  man  of  twenty-nine,  whose  habiliments 
were  somewhat  ragged,  told  me  he  had  no  wife,  not  being 
able  to  pay  for  one.  Many  other  young  men,  he  said, 
whom  he  knew,  were  in  the  same  position.  A  boy  of 
fifteen  stood  behind  him  also  raggedly  clothed.  This  lad, 
though  so  poor,  had  had  five  years'  schooling.  Their  ordi- 
nary food  was,  they  said,  millet.  They  have  neither  oats 
nor  wheat. 

West  of  the  Tsze-king-kwan,  "  purple  twig  pass,"  there 
are  granite  mountains  as  indicated  by  immense  boulders  in 
the  river  bed.  They  are  rounded  by  constant  attrition, 
and  that  very  roundness  attests  their  hardness.  They 
present  an  irritating  impediment  to  the  rushing  river, 
causing  it  to  increase  its  dash  and  its  spray  as  it  roars  past 
them.  Eemarkable  veins  of  quartz  were  noticeable  in  some 
of  these  large  blocks.  Some  crossed  others  at  right  angles, 
others  at  any  and  all  angles.  Now  we  were  to  enter  again 
a  region  of  softer  and  more  pliable  stone. 

The  Chinese  passion  for  terse  sentences  arranged  in 
couplets  reaches  even  the  mountains.  There  was  there  as 
everywhere  a  temple  to  Kwan-te.  The  words  written  on 
the  door  were  Shan  men  pu  so  tai  sine  fewj,  "  The  temple 
door  needs  not  to  be  locked ;  wait,  and  the  snow  will 
seal  it  up.     In  the  old  monastery  why  use  a  lamp  ?  the 


26o  RELIGION  IN  CHINA. 

moon  shines  into  it."  At  the  head  of  a  list  of  subscribers 
to  the  temple  funds  was  the  sentence,  Yin  kwo  puh  mei, 
"  Cause  and  effect  are  not  concealed  from  observation." 
The  idea  intended  to  be  conveyed  in  this  obscure  sentence 
is  that  virtue,  almsgiving,  and  love  to  mankind  cannot  fail 
of  recognition  and  reward.  Or  it  may  be  that  this  list  is 
intended  to  commemorate  the  charitable  acts  of  the  persons 
named. 

Buddhism  makes  much  of  this  doctrine  of  cause  and 
effect,  and  asserts  confidently  that  moral  retribution 
attends  all  actions,  good  or  bad,  with  the  regularity  of  a 
fixed  law. 

Like  other  things  in  Buddhism,  the  doctrine  is  capable  of 
being  utilised  in  Christian  teaching  among  a  peoj^le  to 
whom  it  is  familiar.  It  is  an  example  of  the  preparation 
for  Christianity  which  we  owe  to  the  doctrinal  system 
both  of  Buddhism  and  Confucianism,  and  in  a  less  degree 
to  Taouism  also. 


THE   END. 


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Date  Due 


1  0  t99t- 


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